ABYSSINIA. and south partly by Sennaar and Kordofan, and partly by vast and barbarous regions, of which the names have scarcely reached us. Pinkerton makes Abyssinia 770 miles in length, and 550 in breadth. The number of inhabitants is from 4 to 5 millions, the greater part of whom are of Arabian extraction, mixed with Jews, Turks and Negroes. The ancients called this country, and some of the parts adjacent, in a peculiar sense, Ethiopia. They also gave the same name, indefinitely, to the interior of Africa, and even to a great part of Asia. The Ethiopian kingdoms, of which the ancients had any distinct knowledge, were two. The first, and the only one known to the earliest writers, is Meroe, or the Peninsula, which they supposed to be an island, formed by the successive union of the Nile with the Astaboras and the Astapus, (Blue River and Tacazze.) The chief city of Meroe was placed by them on the Nile, in lat. 16' 26'; and Bruce saw near Chendi, in Sennaar, immense ruins, which probably belonged to this ancient capital. The other kingdom was not known until the Greeks, under the successors of Alexander, had extended their navigation along the eastern coast of Africa. It was that of the Axumitæ, situated upon the Red sea, and occupying part of the Abyssinian province of Tigré. The capital, Axum, still remains, though in a state of decay. Its port, Adulis, was the channel by which the finest ivory then known was exported, and a commercial intercourse maintained with the coasts both of the Red sea and the Indian ocean.-The Abyssinians boast that their country was the Sheba of Scripture, and that it was converted to Judaism several centuries before the Christian era. It is much more certain, that, prior to the middle of the fourth century, the nation was converted to Christianity, which it has ever since professed. This is, however, more tinctured with Judaism than among other nations. Boys and girls are circumcised; the Mosaic laws in regard to clean and unclean meats are respected; the seventh day is their Sabbath, and their altars have the form of the ark of the covenant. In their dogmas they follow the Monophysitic doctrine. (See Monophysites.) In the church service they use the Bible, with the apocryphal books, in the Tigré or Gheez language, which is their lanBaptism and the guage of literature. eucharist are administered according to the ritual of the Greek church, of which they have all the festivals and fasts. It is, however, peculiar to the Abyssinians, that persons of rank receive larger pieces of bread at the Lord's supper, and that no one is admitted to it before his 25th year, because they pretend that no one is accountable for sin before that age, and that all who die prior to it are sure of salvation. They consider the bodies of the dead as unclean, and hasten their interment. are Their small, round, conical full churches stand on hills, near running water, surrounded by cedars, and of pictures. During the service every body is obliged to stand, as in the Greek churches. The shoes are left at the door, and passing horsemen must dismount. The service, like that of the Greek church, consists in reading parts of the Bible and praying. The clergy, who are very ignorant, generally marry, and are distinguished by a cross, which they offer to passengers to be kissed. The head of the Abyssinian church is called Abuna, (our father,) and is generally taken from the Coptic priests, as the Abyssinians and the Copts keep up a communication with Under the abuna each other in Cairo. are the kamosats, or the chief priests of the secular clergy, the learned theologi ans and monks. The latter pretend to be of the order of St. Augustine, and are divided into two classes. The members of one, living unmarried, reside in wealthy convents; those of the others, with their wives and children, live around the churches, supported by agriculture. Both sorts, as well as the numerous nuns, travel about the country, trade in the markets, and do not appear scrupulously observant of their vow of chastity. The Abyssinian clergy have neither a particular dress nor peculiar privileges. A. is now divided into three separate states, Tigré, Amhara, and Efat. The negus, or nagush, as the king of all A. was called before its division, lives at Gondar, in Amhara, enjoying only a nominal sovereignty, and watched by the chief of that state. The pope has several times attempted to gain over A. An opportunity of reducing the Abyssinians to the Roman church was offered by their war with the Turks, in from negus, which the regent Helena sought assistance for David II., the minor the Portuguese, in 1516. In 1520, a Portuguese fleet, with soldiers and priests, arrived in A., and after the Turks and Gallas (a warlike, mountain people, in the south and west of A.) had been repulsed, by the assistance of the Portuguese, towards the end of the 16th century, the zealous Catholics obtained a footing, of which the pope knew how to take advantage. He sent Jesuits to convert the inhabitants to the Roman Catholic religion, and a Portuguese colony supported their enterprise. In the beginning of the 17th century, the Roman Catholic ritual was introduced; the Jesuit Alphonso Mendez was elected patriarch of A., in 1626, the celebration of the 7th day as the Sabbath abolished, and the whole religious system accommodated to the Catholic model. But this favorable turn of affairs was of short duration. The negus Basilidas began his administration in 1632, by yielding to the wishes of the majority of the people, who were opposed to the Roman Catholic faith. He banished the monks with the patriarch, and ordered the Jesuits who remained to be hanged. Almost all the Catholic missionaries have since suffered death, and all the attempts of the Roman propaganda to establish the Catholic faith in A., until the end of the last century, have proved fruitless.-In the western part of this country, an independent government of Jews has long existed. They call themselves Falashas, that is, exiles; the state is called Falasjan. They have their own government, which is allowed by the negus, on consideration of their paying a certain tribute. Bruce found there a Jewish king, Gideon, and a queen, Judith. The customs of the Abyssinians are described by Bruce and Salt as exceedingly savage. They eat the raw and still quivering flesh of cattle, whose roaring is to be heard at their feasts. A perpetual state of civil war seems the main cause of their peculiar brutality and barbarism. Dead bodies are seen lying in the streets, and serve as food to dogs and hyænas. Marriage is there a very slight connexion, formed and dissolved at pleasure; conjugal fidelity is but little regarded. The rulers are unlimited despots in ecclesiastical and civil affairs, disposing of the lives of their subjects at pleasure.-A. is full of high ranges of mountains, in which the Nile takes its rise. The climate, on the whole, is fine, and the soil exceedingly fertile. The vegetable and animal kingdoms are very rich, and afford many species peculiar to this country. One of the most important natural productions of A. is salt, covering a great plain, which occupies part of the tract between Amphila and Massuah. The plain of salt is about four days' journey across. For about half a mile the salt is soft, but afterwards becomes hard, like snow which has been partially thawed, and consolidated. It is perfectly pure: it is cut with an adze, and carried off by caravans. The country is rich in gold, iron, grain and fruits. Commerce is in the hands of the Jews, Armenians and Turks. ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean-tree; in the Linnæan system, a species of mimosa. The flowers of this plant are used, by the Chinese, to produce that yellow color, which we see in their silks and stuffs. They make a decoction of the dried flowers, and add alum and calcined oyster-shells. In the materia medica, acacia is the inspissated juice of the unripe pods of the mimosa nilotica of Linnæus. ACADEMY; an association of scholars or artists, for the promotion of the sciences or arts, sometimes established by government, sometimes voluntary unions of private individuals. The academies at Paris, Stockholm and Berlin, are in part institutions for the purpose of instruction; but at first their only object was the one above-mentioned. The members of an academy either select their own branches of study, or pursue those which the government assigns to them. The results of their labors are read in the regular meetings, and printed among their proceedings. The name is derived from the Athenian academy, belonging to a certain Academus, a famous school for gymnastic exercises, and the place where Plato taught. The appellation academy is also used to denote the various philosophical sects, whose doctrines were taught in that institution. In this sense we speak of the first, second and third academies; the founders of which were Plato, Arcesilaus and Lacydas or Carneades. The first institution of antiquity, which merits the name of academy, in the modern sense of the term, was at Alexandria. Attracted by the generosity of the Ptolemies, a numerous association of scholars was collected here, who were to have labored for the extension and perfection of human knowledge, but soon fell into idleness, or the exercise of grammatical subtleties. From Alexandria the Jews borrowed the custom of founding academies, which were established, after the close of the first century, in the cities on the Euphrates, Sora, Neharda and Punebedita. From them the Nestorians learned, in the sixth century, to value science, and imparted the same spirit to the Arabs, whose excellent caliphis, Almansor, Harun al Raschid and Almamun, founded a number of academies, which were extended from Cordova to Bochara in the farthest east, with the greatest suc ACADEMY. cess. At the court, too, of Charlemagne, we find an academy, founded by the emperor, at the suggestion of his instructer Alcuin, of which he was himself a member. This useful institution was dissolved after the death of Alcuin, and we afterwards find no academies, properly so called, till the time of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, when several Grecian scholars were compelled to fly to Italy. Lorenzo de' Medici then founded, at Florence, the first Grecian academy, under the care of Argyropylus, Theodore Gaza, and Chalcondylas. Cosmo afterwards established the Platonic academy, the object of which was the study of the writings of Plato, and the restoration of his philosophy. These establishments did not subsist long, but their places were filled by others of a more general character, which spread themselves over all the cities of Europe. We will arrange the most important older ones, that still exist, according to the subjects to which they are devoted. General scientific academies. The Academia Secretorum Nature, founded at Naples in 1560, for the promotion of the mathematical and physical sciences, was abolished by the papal interdict. It was followed by the Accademia dei Lincei, founded at Rome, by prince Cesi, about the end of the same century; of which Galilei was a member. The Accademia del Cimento arose in the beginning of the 17th century, under the patronage of prince Leopold, afterwards cardinal de' Medici, and numbered among its members Paolo di Buono, Borelli, Viviani, Redi, Magalotti and other distinguished men. The Accademia degl' Inquieti, at Bologna, afterwards incorporated with the Accademia della Traccia, published several excellent treatises under the title Pensieri Fisico-Matematici, 1667. In 1714, it was united with the Institute at Bologna, and has since been called the Academy of the Institute, or the Clementine Academy, (from Clement XI.) It possesses a large collection of natural curiosities and a numerous library. The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, or the Institute of Bologna, was established in 1712, by count Marsigli. (See Bologna.) In 1540, an academy was established at Rossano, in the territory of Naples, under the name Società Scientifica Rossanense degl' Incuriost, at first for the belles lettres, but since 1695 for the sciences also. The Royal Academy at Naples has existed since 1779. Its publications contain some instructive disquisitions on mathematical subjects. Of the Italian academies, we would also mention those at Turin, Padua, themselves to natural philosophy, medicine and chemistry; the second to mathematics, astronomy and mechanics; the third to the history and language of Germany; the fourth to oriental literature, with a view to the conversion of the heathen. Each class chooses a director for life. The first president was the famous Leibnitz. The institution began truly to flourish under Frederic II, who invited distinguished scholars from foreign countries, and appointed Maupertuis president. Public sessions were held semi-annually, on the birth-day of the king, and the anniversary of his accession to the throne. In the latter, a prize medal of 50 ducats is adjudged to him, who has best answered the question proposed by the academy. Since that time, their transactions have appeared in a series of volumes, under the title Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres à Berlin. They are now, however, always published in the German language. New alterations were made in 1798, in order to give a more useful direction to the labors of the cademy: among other things, the royal library and the cabinet of arts were united with it.-At Manheim, in 1755, the elector, Charles Theodore, established an academy, according to the plan of Schöpflin. It consisted, at first, of two classes, the historical and physical; the latter was divided, in 1780, into the physical, properly so called, and the meteorological. The transactions in the departments of history and physic have appeared under the title Acta Academia Theodoro-Palatina; in the branch of meteorology, under the title Ephemerides Societatis Meteorologica Palatina. The academy at Munich has existed since 1759, but was much enlarged when Bavaria was exalted to a kingdom. Its memoirs are entitled Abhandlungen der baierschen Akademie.-Peter the Great had projected the establishment of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, and consulted Wolf and Leibnitz on the subject; but his death prevented the execution of his project, which was completed by Catharine I. Its first sitting was held Dec. 1725. The empress appropriated about 30,000 roubles a year for the support of the academy; fifteen distinguished scholars in different departments received pensions as members, with the title of professors. The most famous of them were Nicholas and Daniel Bernouilli, the two de Lisles, Bulfinger and Wolf. Under Peter II, the academy languished; but revived under the empress Anna, and declined again after her death. Under Elizabeth, it flourished anew. It was enlarged and improved, and an academy of arts added in 1747, which was separated again in 1764. Its annual income amounts to 60,000 roubles. This academy has contributed much to a more accurate knowledge of the interior of Russia, by sending men like Pallas, Gmelin, Stolberg, Guldenstadt and Klaproth, to travel through single provinces, and has thereby given rise to some excellent works. The number of active members, besides the president and director, amounts to fifteen. In addition to these, there are four adjuncts, who attend the sittings, and are admitted, on the first vacancies, to the rank of members. The academy has an excellent collection of books and manuscripts, a valuable cabinet of medals, and a rich collection in natural history. Its transactions appeared from 1728 to 1747, during which period they amount to 14 volumes, under the title Commentarii Academia Scientia Imperialis Petropolitana. From that time till 1777, they were published under the title Novi Commentarii, in 20 volumes. They were subsequently entitled Acta Academiæ, and at present the new series is called Nova Acta. The commentarii are all in Latin; the acta are partly in Latin, partly in French.The Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm originated in a private association of six learned men, among whom was Linnæus, and held its first session June 23, 1739. In the same year appeared its first memoirs. The association soon attracted public attention, and, March 31, 1741, the king conferred on it the name of the Royal Academy of Sweden. It receives, however, no pension from the crown, and is conducted by its own members. A professor of experimental philosophy only, and two secretaries, are paid from the funds of the society, which are considerable, arising from legacies and donations. The presidency is held in turn by the members residing at Stockholm, each one remaining in office three months. The treatises read in the sittings appear quarterly. The first forty volumes, till 1779, are called the Old Transactions; the subsequent volume. are called the New. The papers relating to agriculture appear under the title Economica Acta. Prizes consisting of money and gold medals are annually offered.-The Royal Academy at Copenhagen sprang from a society of six literary men, to whom Christian VI committed, in 1742, the care of his cabinet of medals. They subsequently enlarged ACADEMY. their plan, so as to form a regular academy. One of these literary men was the count of Holstein, at whose suggestion Christian VI took the academy under his protection in 1743, endowed it with a fund, and directed the members to extend their studies to natural history, physics, and mathematics. It has published fifteen volumes, in the Danish language: some of these have been translated into Latin.-The Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was formed, in 1782, mostly of the members of the university, who assembled weekly. Its transactions have appeared regularly since 1788. As early as 1683, there was an academy in Dublin, but, owing to the distracted state of the country, it soon declined. In 1740, a . Physico-Historical Society was instituted there, which published two volumes of transactions, still extant. This also soon declined. In Lisbon, the late queen established an academy of science, agriculture, arts, commerce and economy in general, consisting of three classes; those of natural science, mathematics and national literature, and comprising sixty members. It has published Memorias de Letteratura Portugueza, Memorias Economicas, together with scientific transactions and a Collecção de Livros ineditos de Historia Portugueza. Academies for the promotion of particular departments of science.-1. Medical. The Academia Natura Curiosorum, at Vienna, called also Leopold's Academy, was formed in 1652. At first, it published its treatises separately, but after 1684, in volumes. Under Leopold I, who favored it in a high degree, it adopted the name Casareo-Leopoldina Natura Curiosorum Academia. Similar academies were established at Palermo, 1645, in Spain, 1652, at Venice, 1701, and at Geneva, 1715.-2. Surgical. A surgical academy was established at Paris, 1731, which proposes annually a prize question. The prize is a gold medal of the value of 500 livres. A surgical academy was founded at Vienna in 1783. Three prize medals, each of the value of 50 guilders, are yearly adjudged to the most successful students.-3. An academy of theology was established, in 1687, at Bologna. 4. Coronelli founded, in the beginning of the 18th century, a geographical academy at Venice, under the title of the Argonauts the object is to publish good maps and descriptions of countries.-5. Historical. King John V founded, in 1720, a royal academy of Portuguese history at Lisbon, consisting of a director, four censors, a secretary, and fifty members: the subject The academy which Paul II |