cent country, was buried by an earthquake. | vehement agitation. The sea felt an equal share About three hundred years after, in the times of of turbulence, and, bursting over its mounds, Justinian, it was once more destroyed together deluged all that came in its way. The fissures with forty thousand inhabitants; and, after an of the earth were, in some places, so great, that interval of sixty years, the same ill-fated city was one of the streets appeared twice as broad as fora third time overturned, with the loss of not less merly. In many places, however, it opened and than sixty thousand souls. In the year 1182, closed again, and continued this agitation for most of the cities of Syria, and the kingdom of some time. Of these openings, two or three hunJerusalem, were destroyed by the same accident. dred might be seen at a time; in some whereof In the year 1594, the Italian historians describe the people were swallowed up; in others, the an earthquake at Puteoli, which caused the sea earth closing, caught them by the middle, and to retire two hundred yards from its former bed. thus crushed them instantly to death. Other But one of those most particularly described openings, still more dreadful than the rest, swalin history, is that of the year 1693; the damages lowed up whole streets; and others, more formidaof which were chiefly felt in Sicily, but its mo- ble, spouted up whole cataracts of water, drowntion perceived in Germany, France, and England. ing such as the earthquake had spared. The It extended to a circumference of two thousand whole was attended with the most noisome six hundred leagues; chiefly affecting the sea- stench; while the thundering of the distant fallcoasts and great rivers; more perceivable also upon ing mountains, the whole sky overcast with a the mountains than in the valleys. Its motions dusky gloom, and the crash of falling habitations, were so rapid that those who lay at their length gave unspeakable horror to the scene. After this were tossed from side to side, as upon a rolling dreadful calamity was over, the whole island billow. The walls were dashed from their foun- seemed converted into a scene of desolation; dations; and no less than fifty-four cities, with scarcely a planter's house was left standing; alan incredible number of villages, were either de- most all were swallowed up; houses, people, stroyed, or greatly damaged. The city of Cata- trees, shared one universal ruin and in their nea, in particular, was utterly overthrown. A places appeared great pools of water, which, when traveller, who was on his way thither, at the dis-dried up by the sun, left only a plain of barren tance of some miles, perceived a black cloud, like night, hanging over the place. The sea, all of a sudden, began to roar; Mount Etna to send forth great spires of flame; and soon after a shock ensued, with a noise as if all the artillery in the world had been at once discharged. Our traveller, being obliged to alight, instantly felt himself raised a foot from the ground; and turning his eyes to the city, he, with amazement, saw nothing but a thick cloud of dust in the air. The birds flew about astonished; the sun was darkened; the beasts ran howling from the hills; and although the shock did not continue above three minutes, yet near nineteen thousand of the inhabitants of Sicily perished in the ruins.Catanea, to which city the describer was travelling, seemed the principal scene of ruin; its place only was to be found; and not a footstep of its former magnificence was to be seen remaining. The earthquake which happened in Jamaica, in 1692, was very terrible, and its description sufficiently minute. "In two minutes' time it destroyed the town of Port Royal, and sunk the houses in a gulf forty fathoms deep. It was at- | tended with a hollow rumbling noise, like that of thunder; and, in less than a minute, three parts of the houses, and their inhabitants, were all sunk quite under water. While they were thus swallowed up on one side of the street, on the other the houses were thrown into heaps; the sand of the street rising like the waves of the sea, lifting up those that stood upon it, and immediately overwhelming them in pits. All the wells discharged their waters with the most sand, without any vestige of former inhabitants. Most of the rivers, during the earthquake, were stopped up by the falling in of the mountains; and it was not till after some time that they made themselves new channels. The mountains seemed particularly attacked by the force of the shock; and it was supposed that the principal seat of the concussion was among them. Those who were saved got on board ships in the harbour, where many remained above two months; the shocks continuing, during that interval, with more or less violence every day." As this description seems to exhibit all the appearances that usually make up the catalogue of terrors belonging to an earthquake, I will suppress the detail of that which happened at Lisbon in our own times, and which is too recent to require a description. In fact there are few particulars in the accounts of those who were present at that scene of desolation, that we have not more minutely and accurately transmitted to us by former writers, whose narratives I have for that reason preferred. I will therefore close this description of human calamities with the account of the dreadful earthquake at Calabria, in 1638. It is related by the celebrated Father Kircher, as it happened while he was on his journey to visit Mount Etna, and the rest of the wonders that lie towards the south of Italy. I need scarcely inform the reader, that Kircher is considered, by scholars, as one of the greatest prodigies of learning. "Having hired a boat, in company with four more, two friars of the order of St. Francis, and 7 See Supplementary Note B, p. 102. two seculars, we launched, on the twenty-fourth of | I approached, I only loved him the more-After March, from the harbour of Messina in Sicily, and some time, however, finding that I remained unarrived the same day at the promontory of Pelo- hurt amidst the general concussion, I resolved rus. Our destination was for the city of Eupha- to venture for safety, and running as fast as I mia, in Calabria, where we had some business to could, reached the shore, but almost terrified out transact, and where we designed to tarry for some of my reason. I did not search long here till I time. However, Providence seemed willing to found the boat in which I had landed, and my cross our design; for we were obliged to continue companions also, whose terrors were even greater for three days at Pelorus, upon account of the than mine. Our meeting was not of that kind weather; and though we often put out to sea, yet where every one is desirous of telling his own we were as often driven back. At length, how-happy escape; it was all silence, and a gloomy ever, wearied with the delay, we resolved to pro- dread of impending terrors. the earth still continued in violent agitations. But we were scarcely arrived at our inn, when we were once more obliged to return to the boat, and in about half-an-hour we saw the greatest part of the town, and the inn at which we had set up, dashed to the ground, and burying all its inhabitants beneath its ruins. secute our voyage; and, although the sea seemed "Leaving this seat of desolation, we prosemore than usually agitated, yet we ventured for-cuted our voyage along the coast, and the next ward. The gulf of Charybdis, which we ap- day came to Rochetta, where we landed, although proached, seemed whirled round in such a manner as to form a vast hollow, verging to a point in the centre. Proceeding onward, and turning my eyes to Etna, I saw it cast forth large volumes of smoke, of mountainous sizes, which entirely covered the whole island, and blotted out the very shores from my view. This, together with the dreadful noise, and the sulphureous stench, which was strongly perceived, filled me with apprehensions that some more dreadful calamity was impending. The sea itself seemed to wear a very unusual appearance; those who have seen a lake in a violent shower of rain covered all over with bubbles, will conceive some idea of its agitations. My surprise was still increased by the calmness and serenity of the weather; not a breeze, not a cloud, which might be supposed to put all nature thus into motion. I therefore warned my companions that an earthquake was approaching; and, after some time making for the shore with all possible diligence, we landed at Tropæa, happy and thankful for having escaped the threatening dangers of the sea. "In this manner, proceeding onward in our little vessel, finding no safety at land, and yet, from the smallness of our boat, having but a very dangerous continuance at sea, we at length landed at Lopizium, a castle midway between Tropea and Euphemia, the city to which, as I said before, we were bound. Here, wherever I turned my eyes, nothing but scenes of ruin and horror appeared; towns and castles levelled to the ground; Strombolo, though at sixty miles' distance, belching forth flames in an unusual manner, and with a noise which I could distinctly hear. But my attention was quickly turned from more remote to contiguous danger. The rumbling sound of an approaching earthquake, which we by this time were grown acquainted with, alarmed us for the consequences; it every moment seemed to grow louder, and to approach more near. The place on which we stood now began to shake most dreadfully, so that being unable to stand, my companions and I caught hold of whatever shrub grew next us, and supported ourselves in that manner. "But our triumphs at land were of short duration for we had scarcely arrived at the Jesuits' College in that city, when our ears were stunned with a horrid sound, resembling that of an infinite number of chariots driven fiercely forward, the wheels rattling, and the thongs cracking. Soon after this a most dreadful earthquake ensued, so that the whole tract upon which we stood seemed "After some time, this violent paroxysm ceasto vibrate, as if we were in the scale of a balance ing, we again stood up, in order to prosecute our that continued wavering. This motion, however, voyage to Euphemia, that lay within sight. In soon grew more violent; and being no longer able the meantime, while we were preparing for this to keep my legs, I was thrown prostrate upon the purpose, I turned my eyes towards the city, but ground. In the meantime, the universal ruin could see only a frightful dark cloud that seemed round me redoubled my amazement. The crash to rest upon the place. This the more surprised of falling houses, the tottering of towers, and the us, as the weather was so very serene. We waitgroans of the dying, all contributed to raise my ed, therefore, till the cloud was passed away: terror and despair. On every side of me I saw then turning to look for the city, it was totally nothing but a scene of ruin, and danger threat- sunk. Wonderful to tell! nothing but a dismal ening wherever I should fly. I commended my- and putrid lake was to be seen where it stood. self to God, as my last great refuge. At that We looked about to find some that could tell us hour, O how vain was every sublunary happiness! of its sad catastrophe, but could see none! All wealth, honour, empire, wisdom, all mere useless was become a melancholy solitude! a scene of sounds, and as empty as the bubbles in the deep. hideous desolation! Thus proceeding pensively Just standing on the threshold of eternity, no-along, in quest of some human being that could thing but God was my pleasure; and the nearer give us some little information, we at length saw a boy sitting by the shore, and appearing stupified with terror. Of him, therefore, we inquired concerning the fate of the city, but he could not be induced to give us an answer. We entreated him with every expression of tenderness and pity to tell us: but his senses were quite wrapt up in the contemplation of the danger he had escaped. We offered him some victuals, but he seemed to loathe the sight. We still persisted in our offices of kindness; but he only pointed to the place of the city, like one out of his senses; and then running up into the woods, was never heard of after. Such was the fate of the city of Euphæmia! and as we continued our melancholy course along the shore, the whole coast, for the space of two hundred miles, presented nothing but the remains of cities, and men scattered, without a habitation, over the fields. Proceeding thus along, we at length ended our distressful voyage by arriving at Naples, after having escaped a thousand dangers both by sea and land." the more instantaneous and simple it appears. At a greater distance, the earth redoubles the first blow with a sort of vibratory continuation. As waters have generally so great a share in producing earthquakes, it is not to be wondered that they should generally follow those breaches made by the force of fire, and appear in the great chasms which the earthquake has opened. These are some of the most remarkable phenomena of earthquakes, presenting a frightful assemblage of the most terrible effects of air, earth, fire, and water. The valley of Solfatara, near Naples, seems to exhibit, in a minuter degree, whatever is seen of this horrible kind on the great theatre of nature. This plain, which is about twelve hundred feet long, and a thousand broad, is embosomed in mountains, and has in the middle of it a lake of noisome blackish water, covered with a bitumen that floats upon its surface. In every part of this plain, caverns appear smoking with sulphur, and often emitting flames. The earth, wherever we walk over it, trembles beneath the feet. The reader, I hope, will excuse me for this long translation from a favourite writer, and that the sooner, as it contains some particulars rela-Noises of flames, and the hissing of waters, are tive to earthquakes not to be found elsewhere. From the whole of these accounts we may gather, that the most concomitant circumstances are these: A rumbling sound before the earthquake. This proceeds from the air or fire, or both, forcing their way through the chasms of the earth, and endeavouring to get free; which is also heard in volcanoes. heard at the bottom. The water sometimes spouts up eight or ten feet high. The most noisome fumes, fetid water, and sulphureous vapours, offend the smell. A stone thrown into any of the caverns, is ejected again with considerable violence. These appearances generally prevail when the sea is any way disturbed; and the whole seems to exhibit the appearance of an earthquake in miniature. However, in this smaller scene of wonders as well as in the greater, there are many appearances for which, perhaps, we shall never account; and many questions may be asked, which no conjectures can thor A violent agitation or heaving of the sea, sometimes before and sometimes after that at land. This agitation is only a similar effect produced on the waters with that at land, and may be called, for the sake of perspicuity, a seaquake;oughly resolve. It was the fault of the philosoand this also is produced by volcanoes. A spouting up of waters to great heights. It is not easy to describe the manner in which this is performed: but volcanoes also perform the same; Vesuvius being known frequently to eject a vast body of water. phers of the last age, to be more inquisitive after the causes of things than after the things themselves. They seemed to think that a confession of ignorance cancelled their claims to wisdom; they, therefore, had a solution for every demand. But the present age has grown, if not more inqui ashamed of that ignorance, which labour can neither remedy nor remove. A rocking of the earth to and fro, and some-sitive, at least more modest; and none are now times a perpendicular bouncing, if it may be so called, of the same. This difference chiefly arises from the situation of the place with respect to the subterranean fire. Directly under, it lifts; at a farther distance, it rocks. Some earthquakes seem to travel onward, and are felt in different countries at different hours the same day. This arises from the great shock being given to the earth at one place, and that being communicated onward by an undulatory motion, successively affects different regions in its progress; as the blow given by a stone falling in a lake, is not perceived at the shores till some time after the first concussion. The shock is sometimes instantaneous, like the explosion of gunpowder; and sometimes tremulous, and continuing for several minutes. The nearer the place where the shock is first given, NOTE A. In a preceding note [A, p. 89] we have noticed M. Cordier's theory. He considers the whole globe as a mass of fused matter, covered with a solid crust or shell, upon which man and all his works are suspended over the molten abyss. This theory," says a journalist of great intelligence, accounts for the frequency of volcanoes in the early stages of the traction rapid, and the fracture of its parts easy. globe's existence, when the crust was thin, the conAs it increases in thickness, changes in its figure or volume become more difficult, and must be chiefly confined to the inner coats, among which it is probable that void spaces may be left; into these the fluid matter may be injected, which in earlier times would have reached the surface and formed eruptions. Assuming that the thickness of the crust is 60 miles, it would require a pressure equal to that of 28,000 atmospheres to make the fused lava reach the surface. Hence we see why such a vast number of volcanoes are found everywhere on the earth's surface, which were once active but are now extinguished. In early times, when the earth was perfectly fluid at the surface, the attraction of the sun and moon would produce tides in the molten mass exactly as it does now in the ocean. These tides, which must have been four or five yards in height, would exert a disturbing force on the crusts, while it was consolidating, by breaking and displacing its parts, and may have been one cause of the confused and fractured appearance of the primitive rocks. The same phenomena must exist even yet in the interior of the earth, but its influence must be extremely feeble. The rents and fractures produced still by contractions, especially in the interior, and perhaps still more the gaseous matter disengaged during refrigeration (as the phenomena of volcanoes prove), but kept pent up within the exterior shell exposed to an excessive temperature, explain the origin of earthquakes. These are most frequent in the regions of the globe where we would expect the crust to be thinnest, and the operation of the disturbing causes most violent. In all probability, it is the gaseous matter disengaged from the rocks during refrigeration that impregnates those mineral springs, in which a portion of such matter exists. M. Cordier observes that these springs should have been more numerous in early ages, and various phenomena he thinks announce that this was the case. The gradual refrigeration of the earth explains other facts which have perplexed philosophers. It accounts, for instance, for so large a portion of fossil plants and animals found in cold countries, having the characters of those species which now belong to the tropics. Again, it has been observed, that the land surrounding the upper parts of the Baltic has risen from two to three feet within a century, while the French savans have inferred from certain marks at the ruins of Tanis in Egypt, that the African continent is subsiding at the rate of a foot in a century. Considering all large portions of land as solid masses floating over a liquid abyss, and receiving unequal additions from below, we can easily understand why one part may rise and another descend. Lastly, as the metals are undoubtedly mixed with the fluid mass below, and the whole in consequence of its fluidity may have certain slow regular motions within itself, we have a key to the mysterious phenomena of magnetism—the variation of dip and polarity." NOTE B. Great Earthquake at Lisbon. Goldsmith here alludes to the great earthquake of 1755. It appears to have originated beneath the Atlantic ocean, the waves of which received almost as violent a concussion as the land. Its effects were even extended to the waters in many places where the shocks were not perceptible. It pervaded the greater portions of the continents of Europe, Africa, and America; but its extreme violence was exercised on the south-western parts of the former. Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, had already suffered greatly from an earthquake in 1531; and, since the calamity about to be described, has had three such visitations, in 1761, 1765, and 1772, which were not, however, attended by equally disastrous consequences. In the present instance, it had been remarked, that, since the commencement of the year 1750, less rain had fallen than had been known in the memory of the oldest of their inhabitants, unless during the spring preceding the calamitous event. The summer had been unusually cool, and the weather fine and clear for the last forty days. At length, on the 1st of November, about forty minutes past nine in the morning, a most violent shock of an earthquake was felt; its duration did not exceed six seconds; but so powerful was the concussion, that it overthrew every church and convent in the city, together with the royal palace and the magnificent opera-house adjoining to it; in short, not any building of consequence escaped. About one-fourth of the dwellinghouses were thrown down: and, at a moderate computation, 30,000 individuals perished. Between the 1st and 8th of November, twenty-two shocks were reckoned. This earthquake was also felt at Oporto, Cadiz, and other parts of Europe, and equally severe in Africa. A great part of the city of Algiers was destroyed. In many places of Germany the effects of this earthquake were very perceptible; but in Holland the agitations were still more remarkable. The agitation of the waters was also perceived in various parts of Great Britain and Ireland. At sea, the shocks of this earthquake were felt most violently. Among other catastrophes, the captain of the Nancy frigate, off St. Lucar, felt his ship so violently shaken, that he thought she had struck the ground, but on heaving the lead, found she was in a great depth of water. The earthquakes in Sicily and the two Calabrias began on the 5th of February, 1783, and continued until the latter end of the May following; doing infinite damage, and exhibiting at Messina, in the parts of Sicily nearest to the continent, and in the two Calabrias, a variety of phenomena. The earth was in a constant tremor, and its motions were various, being either vertical or whirling round,horizontal or oscillatory, that is, by pulsations or beatings from the bottom upwards. There were many openings or cracks in the earth; and several hills had been lowered, while others were quite level. In the plains, the chasms were so deep that many roads were rendered impassable. Huge mountains were severed, and portions of them driven into the valleys, which were thus filled up. The total amount of the mortality occasioned by these earthquakes in Sicily and the two Calabrias, was, agreeably to the official returns, 32,367; but Sir William Hamilton thought it still greater, and carries his estimation to 40,000, including foreigners. The shocks felt since the commencement of these formidable earthquakes amounted to several hundreds; and among the most violent may be reckoned the one which happened on the 28th of March. It affected most of the higher parts of Upper Calabria, and the inferior part of Lower Calabria, being equally tremendous with the first. Indeed these shocks were the only ones sensibly felt in the capital, Naples. With relation to the former, two singular phenomena are recorded. At a distance of about three miles from the ruined city of Oppido, in Upper Calabria, was a hill, having a sandy and clayey soil, nearly 400 feet in height, and nearly 900 feet in circumference at its base. This hill is said to have been carried to the distance of about four miles from the spot where it stood, into a plain called Campo de Bassano. At the same time, the hill on which the city of Oppido stood, and which extended about three miles, divided into two parts, being situated between two rivers, its ruins filled up the valley, and stopped their course, forming two large lakes, which augmented daily. By the earthquake experienced in Chili in 1822, a great line of coast is stated to have been lifted permanently up to the height of several feet above its former level: and it deserves remark, that though earthquakes are sometimes felt in the interior of countries, their most terrible effects occur chiefly along the coast. the 2d March, 1825, the city of Algiers was visited with a tremendous earthquake, which destroyed at least 10,000 human beings. It is worthy of remark, that the same phenomena which generally precedes the eruption of Etna and Vesuvius, occurred at Bluda, on this occasion; namely, all the wells and On fountains in the neighbourhood became perfectly dry. The barometer had fallen gradually for some days before the earthquake; and the thermometer rose suddenly from 58 to 624 degrees on the day it happened. CHAP. XI. | 1707, a slight earthquake was perceived at Santorin; and the day following, at sun-rising, an object was seen by the inhabitants of that island, at two or three miles' distance at sea, which appeared like a floating rock. Some persons, desirous either of gain, or incited by curiosity, went there, and found, even while they stood upon this rock, that it seemed to rise beneath OF THE APPEARANCE OF NEW ISLANDS AND TRACTS; their feet. They perceived also, that its surface AND OF THE DISAPPEARING OF OTHERS. HITHERTO We have taken a survey only of the evils which are produced by subterranean fires, but we have mentioned nothing of the benefits they may possibly produce. They may be of use in warming and cherishing the ground, in promoting vegetation, and giving a more exquisite flavour to the productions of the earth. The imagination of a person who has never been out of our own mild region, can scarcely reach to that luxuriant beauty with which all nature appears clothed in those very countries that we have but just now described as desolated by earthquakes, and undermined by subterranean fires. It must be granted, therefore, that though in those regions they have a greater share in the dangers, they have also a larger proportion in the benefits of nature. But there is another advantage arising from subterranean fires, which, though hitherto disregarded by man, yet may one day become serviceable to him; I mean, that while they are found to swallow up cities and plains in one place, they are also known to produce promontories and islands in another. We have many instances of islands being thus formed in the midst of the sea, which, though for a long time barren, have afterwards become fruitful seats of happiness and industry. New islands are formed in two ways: either suddenly, by the action of subterraneous fires; or more slowly, by the deposition of mud, carried | down by rivers, and stopped by some accident.1 With respect particularly to the first, ancient historians, and modern travellers, give us such accounts as we can have no room to doubt of. Seneca assures us, that in his time the island of Therasia appeared unexpectedly to some mariners, as they were employed in another pursuit. Pliny assures us, that thirteen islands in the Mediterranean appeared at once emerging from the water; the cause of which he ascribes rather to the retiring of the sea in those parts, than to any subterraneous elevation. However, he mentions the island of Hiera, near that of Therasia, as formed by subterraneous explosions; and adds to his list several others formed in the same manner. In one of which he relates that fish in great abundance were found, and that all those who ate of them died shortly after. was covered with pumice-stones and oysters, which it had raised from the bottom. Every day after, until the fourteenth of June, this rock seemed considerably to increase; and then was found to be half-a-mile round, and about thirty feet above the sea. The earth of which it was composed seemed whitish, with a small portion of clay. Soon after this the sea again appeared troubled, and steams arose which were very offensive to the inhabitants of Santorin. But on the sixteenth of the succeeding month, seventeen or eighteen rocks more were seen to rise out of the sea, and at length to join together. All this was accompanied with the most terrible noise, and fires which proceeded from the | island that was newly formed. The whole mass, however, of all this new-formed earth, uniting, increased every day, both in height and breadth, and, by the force of its explosions, cast forth rocks to seven miles' distance. This continued to bear the same dreadful appearances till the month of November in the same year; and it is at present a volcano, which sometimes renews its explosions. It is about three miles in circumference; and more than from thirty-five to forty feet high." It seems extraordinary, that, about this place in particular, islands have appeared at different times, particularly that of Hiera, mentioned above, which has received considerable additions in succeeding ages. Justin tells us, that at the time the Macedonians were at war with the Romans, a new island appeared between those of Theramenes and Therasia, by means of an earthquake. We are told that this became half as large again about a thousand years after, another island rising up by its side, and joining to it, so as scarcely at present to be distinguished from the former. A new island was formed, in the year 1720, near that of Tercera, near the continent of Africa, by the same causes. In the beginning of December, at night, there was a terrible earthquake at that place, and the top of a new island appeared, which cast forth smoke in vast quantities. The pilot of a ship, who approached it, sounded on one side of this island, and could not find ground at sixty fathom; at the other side, the sea was totally tinged of a different colour, exhibiting a mixture of white, blue, and green; and was very shallow. This island, on its first "On the twenty-fourth of May,2 in the year appearance, was larger than it is at present; for 1 Buffon, vol. ii. p. 343. 2 Hist. de l'Acad. an. 1708, p. 23. 9 Justin, lib. xxx. cap. 4. |