hated, that, in 1628, the inhabitants sent deputies to Constantinople, who persuaded Achmed I to consent to the limitation of the power of the pacha. They chose their own dey, therefore, to take charge of the finances, and left to the pacha only his salary and his rank. The pachas afterward attempting to recover their former authority, the dey Babu Ali, in 1710, caused the one then in office to be thrown into a ship, and sent to Constantinople, with the declaration, that the Algerines would no longer receive a pacha from the Porte, but would be governed by deys chosen by themselves. Achmed III appointed the then ruling dey his pacha, and thereby renounced all influence in the government of this military republic. Since that time, the grand seignior only sends occasionally a chiaux, or plenipotentiary, to Algiers, who is received with great respect, entertained, guarded, and very soon sent back again. But the personal condition of the deys is not more secure than that of their predecessors. Seldom is one so fortunate as Mohammed III, who died in 1791, after a reign of 23 years, at the age of 93. The dey Omar Pacha, who made so determined a resistance to lord Exmouth, and who was as prudent and active as he was brave, was murdered by his soldiers, in 1817. On this account, his successor, Ali Hodya, a Turk by birth, with his family, his treasures and ministers, went by night, Nov. 2, 1817, into the strong castle of Kiaska, or Charba (which was the residence of his predecessors till the middle of the 16th century), and, by means of the garrison, on which he could entirely rely, and his 50 cannon, held the city and the disorderly Turkish soldiery in awe. He treated the European consuls and the foreign merchants with shocking caprice and cruelty. His successor, Hussein, who seems more peacefully disposed, has also, for the sake of security, chosen this castle for his residence. The dey of Algiers has unlimited power, though assisted by a divan composed of the first ministers and officers of state. The choice of the dey depends wholly on the common soldiers. It must be unanimous; one party, therefore, generally compel the other to a concurrence with them. The individual chosen must take the office. The new dey, to reward his adherents with places, frequently causes all the officers of his predecessor to be put to death. The dey commands in every thing except in religious affairs. He holds a court of justice every day except Thursday and Fri

day, at which all the officers are present. Every case is quickly decided, and the sentences are executed on the spot. The former dey armed the natives of the country, Moors and Negroes, against his own countrymen, the Turkish soldiery, and purchased their adherence by means of the sacred treasure in the old castle, of which he had made himself master.-The British government is more feared by these barbarians than any other. They observe the treaties entered into with England; and, since the treaty of 1721, the British consul has been held in great respect in Morocco. The condition of slaves, also, in Morocco and Tripoli, has constantly been tolerable, and their ransom easy; but, since the slavery of Christians has been abolished in Morocco, Europeans, who have fallen into the hands of Arabian and Turkish freebooters, by shipwreck or in other ways, are said to have been often murdered, if they could not be transported into the interior of Africa. Most of the Christian slaves are Italians; but the Italian states also treat the captive Moors as slaves.-The state of Algiers lies between Tunis and Fez; it contains 89,300 square miles, with 2,500,000 inhabitants. By the peace of 1816, Naples pays yearly to Algiers 24,000 dollars, and ransoms Neapolitan captives at the rate of 1000 dollars each. The ships of the U. States of America captured an Algerine frigate and brig of war in 1815, and the dey was obliged to make a treaty with the States, in which he renounced all tribute, and even gave 60,000 dollars as a compensation for the American ships which had been plundered. (See Lyman's Diplomacy. With regard to the relation of Algiers to England, see Slave-trade). 10,000 men, for the most part Turkish militia, form the army on an emergency, 100,000 men can be brought together. The principal city, Algiers, with 80,000 inhabitants, including 10,000 Jews, lies on the sea coast, and is strongly fortified. In the provinces, the principal city is Constantina, bordering on Tunis. It is the most populous city, next to Algiers, and contains many ancient monuments. The provinces are under the despotic rule of beys: the villages have their own sheiks if a sheik has authority over several vil lages, he is called an emir. Respecting Tunis, Tripoli, the kingdom of Fez and Morocco, the provinces of Biledulgerid and Barca, see these articles.-The naval power of all the states of Northern Africa, taken together, has always been insignifi

cant, in comparison with the European fleets. For further information, see Blaquiere's Letters from the Mediterranean, containing a Civil and Political Account of Sicily, Tripoli, Tunis and Malta (London, 1813;) the Narrative of a ten Years' Residence at Tripoli; An Account of the Domestic Manners of the Moors, Arabs and Turks (London, 1816, 4to.; written by Richard Tully, British consul); Keating's Travels in Europe and Africa, with a particular Account of Morocco (London, 1816, 4to.); Macgill's Account of Tunis (Glasgow, 1811) and Shaler's Sketches of Algiers (Boston, 1826).

BARBAULD, Anna Letitia; daughter of the reverend John Aikin; born at Kibworth, in Leicestershire, June 20, 1743. She received from him a classical education, and early showed a disposition for poetry. Her earliest production was a small volume of miscellaneous poems, printed in 1772, which, in the year following, was succeeded by a collection of pieces in prose, published in conjunction with her brother, doctor John Aikin, of Stoke Newington. In 1774, she accepted the hand of the reverend Rochemont Barbauld. Her Early Lessons and Hymns for Children, and various essays and poems, have secured for her a permanent reputation. In 1785, she accompanied her husband on a tour to the continent. In 1812, appeared the last of her separate publications, entitled, Eighteen Hundred and Eleven, a poem of considerable merit; previous to which she had amused herself by selecting and editing a collection of English novels with critical and biographical notices. A similar selection followed from the best British essayists of the reign of Anne, and another from Richardson's manuscript correspondence, with a memoir and critical essay on his life and writings. Mrs. B. died at Stoke Newington, March 9, 1825, in her 82d year, leaving behind her many unpublished manuscripts, both in prose and verse.

BARBAZAN, Etienne; a French author and antiquary; born, 1696, at St. Fargeau. He edited several scarce books relating to the manners and customs of the feudal ages. Among these are, L'Ordene de Chivalrie, 1759; Le Castoiement, ou Instructions d'un Pere a son Fils; and Tales and Fables of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, in three vols., 1760; all in 12mo. Another edition of these works was printed at Paris, in four vols. 8vo., in 1808. These are interesting to the student who wishes to trace the progress of the modern languages. B. died in 1770.

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BARBERRIES. Barberries are a beautiful red and oblong-shaped fruit, produced in small bunches by a shrub (berberris vulgaris), with somewhat oval, serrated and pointed leaves; thorns, three together, upon the branches, and hanging clusters of yellow flowers. So great is the acidity of this beautiful fruit, that even birds refuse to eat it. In this respect, it nearly approaches the tamarind. When boiled with sugar, it makes an agreeable preserve, rob or jelly, according to the different modes of preparing it. Barberries are also used as a dry sweetmeat, and in sugar-plums or comfits; are pickled with vinegar, and are used for the garnishing of dishes. They are well calculated to allay heat and thirst in persons afflicted with fevers. The bark of the barberry shrub is said to have been administered with effect in cases of jaundice, and in some other complaints; and the inner bark, with the assistance of alum, dyes linen a fine yellow color. The roots, particularly their bark, are employed, in Poland, in the dyeing of leather. A very singular circumstance has been stated respecting the barberry shrub, that grain, sown near it, proves abortive, the ears being, in general, destitute of grain, and that this influence is sometimes extended to a distance of three or four hundred yards across a field. This opinion prevails not only in England, but also in France and the U. States.

BARBETTE; an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a fortification or an intrenchment, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet. The height of the breasting (the part of the parapet which covers the cannon) is generally 34 feet; the length of the barbette, 14-16 feet; the breadth for every cannon, 16-18 feet. An ascent leads from the interior of the intrenchment to the barbette. When the garrison has much heavy ordnance, or the enemy has opened his trenches, or when it is determined to cannonade the intrenchments of a given point, as, for example, a bridge or pass, and the direction of the cannon is not to be materially changed, it is usual, instead of making a barbette, to cut embrasures in the parapet: on the contrary, firing from the barbette is expedient when one expects to be attacked only by infantry, or wishes to cannonade the whole surrounding country.

BARBEYRAC, John, was born at Beziers, in 1674, and went with his father to Lausanne, in 1686. He afterwards taught belles-lettres in the French college at

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Berlin, but, in 1710, accepted the invitation to fill the new professorship of law and history founded at Berne, whence, in 1717, he removed to the chair of public and private law, at Groningen. B. has distinguished himself by many learned works, which show a high degree of erudition and a liberal spirit. His French translation of the Law of Nature and Nations, by Puffendorff, as also of the Rights of War and Peace, by Grotius, to both of which he added learned notes, are well known and much esteemed. He has likewise translated several works of the most distinguished civilians, including Cumberland's Latin treatise On Natural Law, his notes appended to which are highly valued. He died in 1747.

BARBIE-DU-BOCAGE, J. D.; geographer of the French department of foreign affairs, and, since 1806, member of the academy of inscriptions; born at Paris, 1760; died Dec. 28, 1825. He was a pupil of d'Anville. In 1785, he was appointed to assist in the care of the cabinet of medals, in the royal library. In 1793, when the arrest of all the officers of the libraries was decreed, he lost his small income. In 1797, he was appointed geographer to the ministry of the home department, and, in 1803, to that of foreign affairs; in 1809, professor, and, in 1815, dean of the academy of sciences at Paris. B. furnished the plans and maps to Choiseul-Gouffier's Voyage pittoresque en Grèce. In 1788, he furnished an atlas for Barthélemy's Travels of Anacharsis the Younger; second edition in 1799. In 1805, he published an essay and a map illustrative of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks. He published, with de Sainte-Croix, in 1797, Mémoires historiques et géographiques sur les Pays situés entre la Mer Noire et la Mer Caspienne, in 4to. Among many other works, he has prepared an atlas in 54 sheets, 4to., for the illustration of ancient history, published in 1816.

BARBIER, Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer, was born at Coulommiers, in 1765, and, at the beginning of the revolution, was a vicar. In the year 1794, he went to Paris, where he was chosen a member of the committee appointed to collect works of literature and art existing in the monasteries, which were then suppressed. This was the cause of his being appointed, in 1798, keeper of the library of the conseil d'état, collected by himself, and, when it was transported to Fontainebleau, in 1807, Napoleon appointed him his librarian. At the return of the king,

he had the care of his private library. He died in 1825. His excellent Catalogue de la Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État (Paris, 1801–3, two vols. folio) is now very rare. His Dictionnaire des Ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes (Paris, 1806 -9, four vols., third edit. 1824), is, on account of its plan, its accuracy and its fulness (at least in respect to French literature), one of the best works which we have at present in this branch of bibliography. He did not succeed so well with his Examen critique et Complément des Dictionnaires historiques (one vol., Paris, 1820) since the narrow circle of his studies and researches was not sufficient for such an extensive plan.

BARBIERI (Gianfrancesco Barbieri da Cento). (See Guercino.)

BARBOU; a celebrated family of printers, known since the 16th century. The works of their press are distinguished for correctness and neatness. In the beginning of the 18th century, this family settled in Paris. Here Joseph Gerard Barbou continued the collection of Latin classics in 12mo., which Coustelier had begun. Coustelier had published Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Lucretius, Sallust, Virgil, Nepos, Lucan, Phædrus, Horace, Velleius, Eutropius, Juvenal and Persius, Martial and Terence. Barbou, from whom the whole collection generally takes its name, published Cæsar, Curtius, Plautus, Tacitus, Seneca, Ovid, Cicero, Justin, both the Plinies and Livy, and also some of the later Latin authors in the same form. The present owner of the whole publication, Auguste Delalain, has added to the collection four volumes, and sells the whole set of 77 volumes, in pasteboard, at 350 francs; bound, at 500 francs.

BARBOUR, John; an ancient Scottish poet, of whose personal history but few particulars are recorded. He appears to have been born about 1316, and educated for the church, being styled, in the year 1357, archdeacon of Aberdeen. In that year, he was appointed, by the bishop of his diocese, a commissioner to treat for the ransom of the captive king David II. About 1375, he was engaged in composing his celebrated poem of The Bruce, or the History of Robert I, King of Scotland, which was first published in 1616, and of which the most valuable of many editions is that of 1790, three vols. 12mo., edited by Pinkerton, from a MS. in the advocates' library, dated 1489. It is a work of considerable merit; and it is remarkable that B., who was contemporary with Gower

and Chaucer, is more intelligible to modern readers than either of them. He died, at an advanced age, in 1396.

BARBUDA, OF BARBOUTHIOS; one of the Caribbee islands, about 21 miles long, and 12 wide; lon. 61° 50′ W.; lat. 17° 44′ N.; population, 1500. The land lies low, but it is fertile, and the inhabitants are chiefly employed in breeding cattle, sheep, kids, fowls, &c., which they dispose of in the neighboring islands; they likewise cultivate citrons, pomegranates, oranges, raisins, Indian figs, maize, cocoa-nuts, pineapples, pepper, indigo, &c. The island has no harbor, but a well sheltered road on the west side. This island is the property of the Codrington family, who have done what few slaveholders can boast of-they have caused their slaves to be instructed in Christianity.

BARCA; a desert, containing only a few fertile spots, on the northern coast of Africa, between Tripoli and Egypt (88,000 square miles, with 300,000 inhabitants). Its soil is limestone, covered with quicksand. The mountain Harutsch, towards the west and the south, is probably of volcanic origin. This country is a Turkish province, under a sandgiak, in the town of Barca. Here is also Tolometa (Ptolemais), with Greek ruins. The remains of Cyrene (q. v.) are now called Cunen. The mountains of Derne, with the town of the same name, are under a bey, appointed by the bey of Tripoli. The bey of Bingazi (ancient Berenice), with the ports on the gulf of Sydra, and the small commercial republic Augila, in the interior, are also under the bey of Tripoli. In the desert, four days' journey westward from the Nile, are some inhabited oases. Such is the watered part of the republic Siwah, which acknowledges the protection of the Porte, and pays tribute to the pacha of Egypt. The capital, Siwah (the ancient Ammonium, see Ammon), has 6000 inhabitants, and a trade in dates. Frediani speaks of having found, in March, 1820, in the oasis of Jupiter Ammon, the ruins of the ancient temple. The German architect Gau, and the French consul Drovetti, in Egypt, have contradicted his account. The inhabitants are mostly of Arabian descent, Mohammedans, and partly robbers.

BARCAROLLA; a kind of song of the gondoliers at Venice, often composed by themselves, but of a very agreeable char

acter.

The most of these gondoliers know by heart a great deal of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, some of them even the whole, somewhat corrupted, it is true.

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They sing stanzas of it, during the summer nights, from one gondola to another. Tasso is probably the only epic poet, besides Homer, whose writings have been so generally preserved in the memories of his countrymen. The custom above described, however, is going out of use.

BARCELONA, one of the largest cities of Spain, the capital of the province of Catalonia, is handsomely built, in the shape of a half-moon, on the coast of the Mediterranean, in lon. 2° 10′ E., and 41° 21' 44" N. lat. It was, even in the middle ages, one of the principal commercial places on this sea; is well fortified, and has, on the east side, a strong citadel, built in 1715, having a secret connexion with the fort San Carlos, near the sea. On the west side of the city lies the hill of Montjouy, with a fort, which protects the harbor. B. is divided into the upper and lower town, and contains, including the adjoining Barcelonetta, 140,000 inhabitants. It has 150 cotton and many silk manufactories. Linen and laces, articles of iron and copper, particularly excellent guns, pistols and swords for the Spanish army, formerly sent, also, to Naples and the American colonies, are manufactured in great quantities. The harbor is spacious, but of difficult access, and has not sufficient depth for men-of-war. It is protected by a large mole, at the end of which are a lighthouse and a bulwark. The exports consist, besides the abovementioned articles, of wine and brandy; the imports, of French and Italian manufactures, grain, rice, timber from the Baltic, yellow wax from Barbary, Swedish iron, steel from Stiria, hemp from Riga and Petersburg, linen, copper and iron wire from Germany. An important article of import is stockfish, brought by the English from Newfoundland. The amount of the imports and exports, which employ nearly 1500 ships (among them 120 belonging to B.), is computed to be more than 7,000,000 dollars. The city contains 82 churches, a university, several public libraries, a public collection of natural curiosities, a school for engineers and artillery, an academy of belleslettres, a foundling hospital, a general hospital, large enough to contain 3000 sick persons, a large arsenal, a cannon foundery, &c. The tribunal of the inquisition is suppressed.-B. was, until the 12th century, governed by its own counts; but, afterwards, by the marriage of Raymond V with the daughter of Ramiro II, king of Arragon, it was united with that kingdom. În 1640, it withdrew, with all Cat

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alonia, from the Spanish government, and submitted to the French crown; in 1652, submitted again to the Spanish government: in 1697, it was taken by the French, but restored to Spain at the peace of Ryswick. In the war of the Spanish succession, B. took the part of the archduke Charles; but, in 1714, it was besieged by the troops of Philip V, under the command of the duke of Berwick, and taken after an obstinate resistance. The strong citadel on the east side of the city was then erected, to overawe the inhabitants. Feb. 16, 1809, B. was taken, by surprise, by the French troops under general Duhesme, and remained in the power of the French, until, in 1814, all their troops were recalled from Catalonia to defend their own country. In 1821, B. was desolated by the yellow fever.

BARCLAY, Alexander; an English poet of the 16th century. Very little is known concerning him, except what we learn from his writings, which inform us, that he was a priest and chaplain of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire, and afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely. He survived the reformation, and obtained preferment in the church. His death took place in 1552, a short time after he had been presented to the living of All-Hallows, in London. The principal work of this poet is a satire, entitled The Ship of Fools, a translation or imitation of a German composition. (See Brandt, Sebastian.) B. also wrote Eclogues, which, according to Warton, the historian of English poetry, are the earliest compositions of the kind in our language. They are curious and interesting for the descriptions they afford of the character and manners of the age in which they were written.

BARCLAY, John, was born at Pont-àMousson, and educated in the Jesuits' college at that place. He accompanied his father to England, where he was much noticed by James I, to whom he dedicated one of his principal works, a politico-satirical romance, entitled Euphormio, in Latin, chiefly intended to expose the Jesuits, against whom the author adduces some very serious accusations. He wrote, also, several other works, among which is a singular romance, in elegant Latin, entitled Argenis, which first appeared at Paris, in 1621. It is a political allegory, of a character similar to that of Euphormio, and alludes to the political state of Europe, and especially France, during the league. Like the Euphormio, it has been several times reprinted, and has also been translated into sev

eral of the modern languages, including English. (See Reeve, Clara.) A singular story of romantic chivalry has been quoted from the Euphormio by sir Walter Scott, in the notes to his Marmion.

BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, was born, in the year 1648, at Gordonstown, in the shire of Moray, of an ancient and honorable family. The troubles of the country induced his father, colonel B., to send him to Paris, to be educated under the care of his uncle, who was principal of the Scots' college in that capital. Under this influence, he was easily induced to become a convert to the Roman Catholic religion, upon which his father sent for him to return home; and, colonel B. soon after becoming a Quaker, his son followed his example. Uniting all the advantages of a learned education to great natural abilities, he soon distinguished himself by his talents and zeal in the support of his new opinions. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles, was published, at Aberdeen, in the year 1670, under the title of Truth cleared of Calumnies, &c., being an answer to an attack on the Quakers by a Scotch minister of the name of Mitchell. It is written with great vigor, and, with his subsequent writings against the same opponent, tended materially to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers, as also to procure them greater indulgence from government. To propagate the doctrines, as well as to maintain the credit he had gained for his sect, he published, in 1675, a regular treatise, in order to explain and defend the system of the Quakers, which production was also very favorably received. These and similar labors involved him in controversies with the leading members of the university of Aberdeen, and others; but, notwithstanding so much engrossment, his mind was, at the same time, busy with his great work, in Latin, An Apology for the true Christian Divinity, as the Same is preached and held forth by the People in scorn called Quakers. It was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and quickly translated into the German, Dutch, French and Spanish languages, and, by the author himself, into English. It met, of course, with many answers; but, although several of them were from able and learned pens, they attracted, comparatively, very little notice. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his travels with the famous William Penn through the greater part of England, Holland and Germany, to spread the opinions of the