of an oblique rhombic prism of 87° 5' and 92°5', its primitive form. Its specific gravity is from 3,23 to 3,34; lustre vitreous; and hardness sufficient to scratch glass. Different names have been applied to some of its most remarkable varieties; as, diopside, to greenish-white, transparent crystals; sahlite, when it is in imperfectly prismatic and foliated masses; and coccolite, when in small, slightly-cohering grains. This species occurs abundantly in black crystals in basalt and lava, and enters into the regular composition of many rocks, besides being found in veins in primitive rocks. It is composed essentially of silex, lime and magnesia, to which oxyde of iron is sometimes added; and is one of those few mineral substances, whose composition may be imitated by the artificial mixture of its constituents, and subjecting them to fusion. Its native crystals, likewise, when fused, and suffered to cool slowly, reassume their original shape and color. A transparent green variety, found at Zillerthal, in the Tyrol, is used in jewelry.

AUGSBURG, the capital city in the Bavarian circle of Upper Danube, formerly a free city of the empire, lies between the Wertach and Lech, and is the residence of a bishop. It has 3690 houses, and 29,000 inhabitants, of whom 12,000 are Protestants. Lon. 10° 55′ E.; lat. 48° 22′ N.; 35 miles N. W. of Munich. The curiosities are the bishop's palace, where the confession of Augsburg was signed in 1530; the city-house, with the golden hall, esteemed the finest in Germany; the Fuggerei (106 small houses, built by two brothers, by the name of Fugger, for the residence of the poor inhabitants of the city, a monument of the benevolence of those immensely rich citizens); the cathedral church, and the gallery of paintings of the German schools, &c. The city has considerable carrying trade and dealings in bills of exchange, important commercial transactions with Vienna and Italy, and is likewise a mart for the wines of southern Germany and Italy. Whether A. bore the name of Damasia before the entrance of the Romans into the country is uncertain, but it is well settled that the emperor Augustus, about 12 B. C., after conquering the Vindelici, placed a colony there, which must be considered as the origin of the present A. After the division of the empire of the Franks, A. came under the dominion of the duke of Suabia, and, becoming rich by its commerce, finally purchased its freedom of the duke, which was afterwards confirm

ed by the emperor. The city now reached the summit of its prosperity, and was, together with Nuremberg, a great mart for the commerce between the north and south of Europe, until, towards the end of the 15th century, the discoveries of the Portuguese and Spaniards gave a new direction to the whole commerce of the world. In 1368, in consequence of the opposition of the lower classes of citizens, the aristocratic government was abolished, and a democratic form substituted, which continued till 160 years later, when the nobles, with the assistance of the emperor, Charles V, again obtained the supreinacy. A. is still one of the principal manufacturing places in Germany.

AUGSBURG CONFESSION, presented by the Protestants, at the diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the emperor and the diet, and, being signed by the Protestant states, was adopted as their creed. Luther made the original draught at the command of John, elector of Saxony, at Torgau, in 17 articles; but, as its style appeared to be too violent, it was altered by Melancthon, at the command of the elector, and in compliance with the wishes of the body of Protestant princes and theologians. Thus changed, it was presented and read in the diet, June 25. The original is to be found in the imperial Austrian archives, and the edition of the Augsburg confession, at Wittemberg, 1531, was printed from this. Afterwards, Melancthon arbitrarily altered some of the articles, and a new edition, with his changes, appeared in 1540. There now arose a division between those who held the original and those who held the altered Augsburg confession. The former is received by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed, who thereby secured to themselves, at the religious peace of 1555, the privileges extended only to the adherents of the Augsburg confession, and kindred sects.

AUGSBURG GAZETTE. (See Allgemeine Zeitung.)

AUGURS; certain priests among the Romans, who, from the flight and the cries of birds, from lightning, &c., predicted future events, and announced the will of the gods. They were consulted respecting both public and private concerns, and their respectability, as well as their influence in the state, was very great. merely pronouncing the words Alio die (another day), they could dissolve the assembly of the people, and annul all the decrees which had been passed at the meeting. Their answers, as well as the signs by which they governed themselves,

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were called auguries. Public auguries were, 1, appearances in the heavens, as thunder and lightning. The augur remarked the place where the flash of lightning originated, and where it disappeared. He stood on an elevated place (arx, templum), where he had a full view of all around him. After the sacrifices had been made, and solemn prayers offered, he took his station, his face towards the east, his head covered, and pointing with his staff (lituus) to that portion of the heavens within the limits of which he proposed to make his observations. On the left were the propitious, on the right the unpropitious omens. 2. The cries and the flight of birds. Predictions founded on the observation of birds were properly called auspices, and were very common even among the Greeks, who took them from the Chaldeans. They afterwards became so important, that, among the Romans, nothing of consequence in peace or in war was undertaken without consulting birds, whose continual flight was supposed to give them universal knowledge. They were propitious or unpropitious, either from their species or from the circumstances in which they appeared. The birds of a prophetic character were divided into two principal classes-those whose flight and those whose cry was indicative of future events. In the latter class were included the_raven, the crow, the night-owl, the cock; in the former were the eagle, the crow, the raven, the kite and the vulture. The two last were always unpropitious; the eagle, on the contrary, was propitious when he flew from left to right; the crow and the raven were propitious on the left and unpropitious on the right. 3. The willingness or unwillingness of chickens to eat was also ominous. The former was interpreted as a good omen, the latter as a bad one. Chickens were made use of particularly in war; therefore a pontifex, some augurs and haruspices (see Aruspex), together with a pullarius with a hen-coop, were attached to the army. Besides these three principal classes, certain omens were drawn from quadrupeds; e. g., if a beast crossed one's path, or was seen in an unusual place, and from many occurrences more or less uncommon, e. g., sudden melancholy, sneezing, spilling the salt on the table, &c. The augurs explained such signs, and taught how the gods were to be appeased. The right of taking the auspices, that is, the right to inquire of the gods, by certain signs, how the war would terminate, belonged only

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to the commander-in-chief. The inferior officers fought only under his auspices; that is, the declaration which he issued was binding upon them, and the fortunate or the unfortunate issue of the war was attributed to him alone.

AUGUST; the name of the eighth month from January, inclusive, and the sixth of the Roman year, which began with March. It was called Sextilis, till the emperor Augustus, in consideration of the many instances of good fortune which had happened to him in this month, affixed to it his own name.

AUGUSTA; the name of a very great number of ancient places; as, Augusta Treverorum, now Treves; Augusta Ausciorum, now Auch; Augusta Taurinorum, now Turin; Augusta Suessonum, now Soissons, &c. Augusta also is the name of many modern places and rivers in South America.

AUGUSTA; a post-town of Maine, on the river Kennebec, 56 miles N. N. E. Portland, 168 N. E. Boston; population, in 1810, 1805; in 1820, 2457. It is a pleasant and flourishing town, and has, by an act of the state legislature, been constituted the seat of the state government after January 1, 1832. Here is an elegant bridge across the Kennebec, consisting of two arches, each 180 feet long. The river is navigable to A. for vessels of 100 tons.

AUGUSTA; a city of Georgia, opposite to Hamburg, in South Carolina, with which it is connected by a bridge; 87 miles E. N. E. Milledgeville, 123 N. N. W. Savannah, 138 W. N. W. Charleston; lon. 80° 46 W.; lat. 33° 33′ N; population, in 1810, 2476; and in 1827, about 5000. It is situated on an elevated plain. The streets are wide, intersecting each other at right angles, and are ornamented with trees. The houses are mostly of brick, and many of them are spacious and elegant. Among the public buildings are a city-hall, an academy, a court-house, a theatre, an hospital, two markets and six houses of public worship. A. is favorably situated for trade, and has a very flourishing commerce. More than 100,000 bags of cotton are annually deposited here, and hence conveyed down the river to Savannah and Charleston, for northern and European markets.

AUGUSTIN, OF AUSTIN, Saint, called the apostle of the English, flourished at the close of the sixth century. He was sent, with 40 monks, by Gregory, to introduce Christianity into the Saxon kingdoms. He was kindly received by Ethelbert, king of Kent, whom he soon converted;

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and such was his success with his subjects, that he is said to have baptized 10,000 in one day. This success may be attributed to his reputation of miraculous power in the restoration of sight and life, more probably than to any other cause. He has the merit of allowing no coercive measures to be used in the propagation of the gospel. Elated by the rapid progress he had made, A. became ambitious of possessing the supreme authority over the English churches as archbishop of Canterbury, and received the archiepiscopal pall from the pope, with instructions to establish 12 sees in his province. The British bishops in Wales, successors of the British converts of the second century, had never submitted to the jurisdiction of the church of Rome, and A. endeavored to persuade them to unite with the new English church. They asserted their independence, and 1200 Welsh monks were soon after put to the sword, as is thought, at the instigation of A. He died in 604, or 608, or 614, and his relics have been carefully preserved in the cathedral of Canterbury.

AUGUSTINE, Saint, one of the most renowned fathers of the Christian church, born at Tagaste, a small city in Africa, Nov. 13, 354, during the reign of the emperor Constantine, has related his life in the work to which he gave the title of Confessions. His parents sent him to Carthage to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. In his 16th year, he became very fond of women. For 15 years, he was connected with one, by whom he had a son. He left her only when he changed his whole course of life. A book of Cicero's, called Hortensius, which has not come down to our times, led him to the study of philosophy; and, when he found this did not satisfy his feelings, he went over to the sect of the Manichæans. He was one of their disciples for nine years; but, after having obtained a correct knowledge of their doctrines, he left them, and departed from Africa to Rome, and thence to Milan, where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. Saint Ambrose was bishop of this city, and his discourses converted A. to the orthodox faith. The · reading of Paul's Epistles wrought an entire change in his life and character. The Catholic church has a feast (May 3) in commemoration of this event. He retired into solitude, wrote there many books, and prepared himself for baptism, which he received in the 33d year of his

life, together with his son Adeodatus, from the hands of Ambrose. He returned to Africa, sold his estate, and gave the proceeds to the poor, retaining only enough to support him in a moderate manner. As he was once present in the church at Hippo, the bishop, who was a very old man, signified a desire to consecrate a priest to assist and succeed him. At the desire of the people, A. entered upon the holy office, preached with extraordinary success, and, in 395, became bishop of Hippo. He entered into a warm controversy with Pelagius (see Pelagians) concerning the doctrines of free will, of grace and of predestination, and wrote a book concerning them. A. maintained that men were justified merely through grace, and not through good works. (See Grace.) He died, Aug. 28, 403, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. There have been fathers of the church more learned, masters of a better language and a purer taste; but none have ever more powerfully touched the human heart, and warmed it towards religion. Painters have therefore given him for a symbol a flaming heart. Augustus Neander published, in Berlin, 1823, Sancti Augustini Confessionum Libri XIII. A. left a monument of his zeal for the monastic life by founding some monasteries for monks and nuns in Africa, which were shortly after destroyed by the Vandals. This order was governed by strict rules, but was very different from the one called, after him, Augustine. The different branches of the Augustine order were first established in the 11th and 12th centuries, and their rules were the work of the popes and priors. They did not constitute a regular order, however, till 1256, and, in 1567, were made the fourth in rank among the mendicant orders, coming after the Dominicans, Franciscans and Carmelites. They wear black cowls. Before the reformation, they had about 2000 convents, containing 30,000 monks, and also 300 nunneries. After the reformation brought about by Luther, a brother of their order, they were separated into many considerable brotherhoods, among which the barefooted monks, in Italy, Spain and France, were the most numerous. At the beginning of the 18th century, the order numbered 42 provinces. The number of convents of this order is now smaller. They are to be found in Italy, Spain, Portugal, in the Austrian states, and in America. In 1817, Augustine nuns of the congregation of Our Lady appeared again in Paris.

Their number is 32; they support themselves by their industry, educate 200 poor children, and possess no landed property. AUGUSTINE, St.; a city and sea-port in East Florida. (See Saint Augustine.)

AUGUSTULUS (Romulus Momyllus, surnamed Augustulus); son of Orestes, a general of the Roman emperor Julius Nepos. Orestes deposed the emperor, and placed his son upon the throne, in 475. In the following year, Odoacer, a commander of the German forces in the Roman service, revolted, put Orestes to death, obliged A. to resign, and thus put an end to the Roman empire in the West. During the 20 years of the Roman empire which succeeded the murder of Valentinian III, no less than nine emperors are mentioned.

AUGUSTUS (Caius Julius Cæsar Octavius); originally called Caius Octavius; son of Caius Octavius and Accia, a daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Cæsar. The Octavian family originated at Velletri, in the country of the Volscians. The branch to which Octavius belonged was rich and distinguished. His father had risen to the rank of senator, and had gone to Macedonia, after being chosen prætor, where he was very distinguished as a civil and military officer. Octavius was born during the consulate of Cicero, 65 B. C. He lost his father when young, but was very carefully brought up at Rome by his mother, and L. M. Philippus, the second husband of Accia. His talents gained him the regard of his great uncle, Julius Cæsar, who declared himself willing to adopt him for his son, in case he himself should remain without children. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, where he was studying eloquence, under the renowned orator Apollodorus, when he received the news of the tragical death of his uncle, and of his having adopted him as his son. Notwithstanding the anxiety of his friends, he went over to Italy, in order, if circumstances should favor him, to satisfy the hopes which he had entertained from being adopted by Julius Cæsar. When he landed at Brundusium, deputies from the veterans collected there came to him. Conducted in triumph to the city, and saluted as the heir and avenger of Cæsar, he made his adoption publicly known, and took the name of his uncle, adding to it that of Octavianus. He placed himself, then only 19 years old, at the head of the veterans, possessed himself of all the public money in Brundusium, and advanced through Campania to Rome. Here there were

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two parties, that of the republicans, who had killed Cæsar, and that of Antony and Lepidus, who, under the pretence of avenging him, strove to establish their own authority. The latter party became victorious, and the consul, Antony, exercised almost unlimited power. Octavius addressed himself first to Cicero, who had retired to his villa at Cume, being desirous to gain this great orator, always beloved by the people, and whom Antony hated and feared. From thence he went to Rome, where the greatest part of the magistrates, soldiers and citizens came to meet him, Antony, alone, paying no attention to his return. After Octavius had caused his adoption to be confirmed in the most solemn manner, he went to Antony, begged his friendship, and demanded of him the inheritance left him by Cæsar, in order to pay the legacies mentioned in his will, Antony, at first, haughtily refused to acknowledge his claims, but afterwards changed his demeanor, when he found the influence of Octavius continually increasing, and his own proportionably diminishing. There could be no lasting union between two equally ambitious rivals. Their hearts cherished reciprocal hatred and jealousy; and their enmity was so little a secret, that Octavius was accused of having wished to get Antony murdered. How the latter went to Cisalpine Gaul, besieged Mutina, and was declared an enemy to his country while absent from Rome how Octavius, who had obtained the most powerful party in the senate, accompanied the consul sent against Antony, and, after the death of the consul, took the chief command; how he, afterwards, when Antony, together with Lepidus, entered Italy at the head of a powerful army, united with him; how a triumvirate was formed by the three generals; and how, after dreadful scenes of blood, in Rome and the rest of Italy, they defeated the republican army under Brutus and Cassius, in Macedonia;-all this is contained in the article on Antony. Antony honored the memory of Brutus, but Octavius insulted his corpse. After his return to Rome, he satisfied the avarice of his soldiers by the division of the conquered lands. This division caused great disturbances. In the midst of the stormy scenes which convulsed Italy, he was obliged to contend with Fulvia, whose daughter, Clodia, he had rejected, and with Lucius, the brotherin-law of Antony. After several battles, Lucius threw himself into the city of Perusia, where he was soon after obliged

to surrender. The city was given up to be plundered, and 300 senators were condemned to death, as a propitiatory sacrifice to the manes of the deified Cæsar. After the return of Antony, an end was put to the proscriptions. Octavius allowed such of the proscribed persons as had escaped death by flight, and whom he no longer feared, to return. There were still some disturbances in Gaul, and the naval war with Sextus Pompeius continued for several years. After his return from Gaul, Octavius married the famous Livia, the wife of Claudius Nero, whom he compelled to resign her, after he himself had divorced his third wife, Scribonia. Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an appearance of power, was now deprived of his authority, and died, as a private man, 13 B. C. Antony and Octavius now divided the_empire. But, while the former, in the East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, the young Octavius pursued his plan of making himself sole master of the world. He especially strove to obtain the love of the people. He showed mildness and magnanimity, without the appearance of striving after the highest power, and declared himself ready to lay down his power when Antony should return from the war against the Parthians. He appeared rather to permit than to wish himself to be appointed perpetual tribune -an office which gave him supreme power. The more he advanced in the affections of the people, the more openly did he declare himself against Antony. By making public a will, wherein his rival appointed his sons by Cleopatra his heirs, he stirred up the ill-will of the Romans against him. Availing himself of this feeling, Octavius declared war against the queen of Egypt, and led a considerable force, both by sea and land, to the Ambracian gulf, where Agrippa (q. v.) gained the naval victory of Actium (q. v.), which made Octavius master of the world, B. C. 31. He pursued his rival to Egypt, and ended the war, after he had rejected the proposal of Antony to decide their differences by a personal combat. Cleopatra and Antony killed themselves. Octavius caused them to be splendidly buried. A son of Antony and Fulvia was sacrificed, to ensure his safety. Cæsarion, a son of Cæsar and Cleopatra, shared the same fate. All the other relations of Antony remained uninjured, and Octavius, on the whole, used his power with moderation. He spent two years in the East, in order to arrange the

affairs of Egypt, Greece, Syria, Asia Minor and the islands. On his return to Rome, he celebrated a triumph for three days in succession. Freed from his rivals and enemies, and master of the world, he was undecided concerning the way in which he should exercise his power in future. Agrippa, whose victory had given him universal dominion, counselled him to renounce his authority. Mæcenas opposed this; and Octavius followed his advice, or rather his own inclinations. In order to make the people willing to look upon him as an unlimited monarch, he abolished the laws of the triumvirate, beautified the city, and exerted himself in correcting the abuses which had prevailed during the civil war. At the end of his seventh consulship, he entered the senate-house, and declared his resolution to lay down his power. The senate, astonished at his moderation, besought him to retain it. He yielded to their pressing entreaties, and continued to govern through them. He now obtained the surname of Augustus, which marked the dignity of his person and rank, and united, by degrees, in himself, the offices of imperator, or commander-in-chief by sea and land, with power to make war and peace; of proconsul over all the provinces, of perpetual tribune of the people, which rendered his person inviolable, and gave him the power of interrupting public proceedings; and, in fine, of censor, and pontifex maximus, or controller of all religious matters. The laws themselves were subject to him, and the observance of them depended upon his will. To these dignities we must add the title of father of his country. Great as was the power given to him, he exercised it with wise moderation. It was the spirit of his policy to retain old names and forms, and he steadfastly refused to assume the title of dictator, which Sylla and Cæsar had made odious.-A. conducted many wars in Africa, Asia, and particularly in Gaul and Spain, where he triumphed over the Cantabrians after a severe struggle. His arms subjected Aquitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia and Illyria, and held the Dacians, Numidians and Ethiopians in check. He concluded a treaty with the Parthians, by which they gave up Armenia, and restored the eagles taken from Crassus and Antony. At the foot of the Alps he erected monuments of his triumphs over the mountaineers, the proud remains of which are yet to be seen at Susa and Aosta. After he had established peace throughout the empire, he closed (for the