the exception of England and Holland, which, for a long time, opposed a similar augmentation, regarding standing armies as dangerous to freedom. These great masses must necessarily have exerted an important influence upon the art of war. This art was practised upon a continually increasing scale. France was, at the same time, endeavoring, in every way, to secure her boundaries by the erection of new fortifications, and her military engineers were particularly eminent. In the beginning of the 18th century, a new and important epoch commenced in the military system. Not only did Russia, in the time of Peter the Great, maintain a large standing army, well disciplined in the European manner, which afterwards, under the empress Anna, in its internal regulation, also, was made to resemble the armies of the other European states; but Prussia, too, came forward, under Frederic William I, as a respectable military power, and supported an army far exceeding a proper proportion to her population; hence she was induced to set the example of foreign levies, in which originated the inconvenience, that, in the hour of danger, a large part of the army could not be depended on, and, moreover, it was difficult to maintain discipline over this same portion, consisting of the refuse of foreign nations. The native soldiers, too, were corrupted by the contact, and it was found necessary to reduce the army to a machine, in order to make such materials serviceable. This idea was put in execution by Frederic II. The system of standing troops was carried to an extent such as it had never reached, and Prussian tactics became a pattern for all the other states of Europe. The system, however, had fatal imperfections, which would necessarily produce very injurious consequences. The great number of foreign vagabonds enlisted, led to the introduction of a degrading discipline, which made the condition of the soldiers completely miserable. Every prospect of advancement and all ambition were destroyed by the exclusive promotion of officers taken from the ranks of the nobility; and even their promotion was determined by length of service (a natural consequence of the long peace, which had existed since the seven years' war). This system seemed, indeed, to have been carried to its height, when the French revolution broke out with a violence which shook Europe to its foundation. Standing armies had now become bodies having little connexion with the nations by which

381

they were maintained. They only were armed; the nation had become altogether defenceless. When the army was beaten, the nation was subdued. At the same time, the armies had been so much increased beyond all proportion to the wealth of the states, that they must necessarily remain, in a great measure, useless. They had become mere machines, without any moral incentive. What was the necessary consequence, when, as now happened in France, a people excited to fury commenced a struggle with these antiquated and rusty engines? A new mode of carrying on war, produced by the pressure of circumstances, and by the rapid, bold and energetic efforts of young military geniuses, overturned multitudes of common forms, and carried victory in its train, until the opposing powers had learned to make it their model, and thereby restored the equilibrium. When the French ruler ultimately began to use his army more and more as a machine for the promotion of his ambitious designs, then the other European powers, taught by experience, called the nations themselves to arms, in behalf of freedom; and it was demonstrated anew, that no excellence of discipline, no mechanical perfection of an army, can enable it to withstand, for any length of time, moral energy and excitement, though connected with far inferior discipline.-The armies on the continent of Europe are raised, at present, from among the citizens, who are bound to serve for some time, and are then assigned to the class reserved for any sudden emergency. The time of service is various; in France, for instance, 6 years; in Prussia, 3, that is, in time of peace. In England and North America, no citizen is obliged to serve in the standing army, but only in the militia, which is destined merely for the defence of the country. (See Militia and Soldier.) The essay of the French colonel Carrion Nisas, Essai sur l'Histoire générale de l'Art Militaire, &c. (Paris, 1824, 2 vols.), mostly according to the views of Guibert, in his Essai de la Tactique, is neither comprehensive nor complete.The organization of armies is nearly alike throughout the continent of Europe; and France, Prussia, Austria and Russia have paid much attention to the perfection of all classes of troops. The military schools of these countries, for the officers of different rank, as well as for the various kinds of troops, particularly those of France and Prussia, are excellent. Among the Prussian troops, learn

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ing is so universally cultivated, that the army is considered as a great institution for the diffusion of knowledge, because every Prussian serves 3 years without being able to send a substitute, and in each regiment schools for the privates are kept. In respect to these military schools, as well as to internal organization, the armies of the European continent very much surpass the English, in which the practice of selling commissions, the expense of the half-pay system, the non-promotion of privates, the still continued use of tents, the degrading flogging, &c., remind one of a continental army such as it was 50 years ago. In the army of the U. States, commissions are not sold, and the half-pay system has not been adopted. Napoleon increased the size of armies to a degree before unexampled. They are distinguished, according to the purposes for which they are destined, by the names of blockading armies, armies of observation, of reserve, &c. ARMY, STANDING. In modern times, we designate by the name of standing armies bodies of troops which, in time of peace, are kept under arms for the defence of the state, within and without, trained to war, and paid by the government (whence the name soldiers, from soldati, from the Italian soldo, the French sous, for pay). These troops may be composed of persons obliged to bear arms, or not, of natives, or of foreigners. In this sense of the word, we find standing armies first in the monarchies of modern times, when the general introduction of fire-arms had changed the whole art of war, rendering personal courage of less consequence, and supplying its place with dexterity and mechanical skill, which can only be acquired by practice. The first standing armies consisted of mercenaries, assisted, indeed, at first, by the feudal militia, who, however, gradually disappeared, as military service and discipline assumed a more systematic character by means of the standing troops. The expense of mercenaries, which increased with the number of troops, and the security of the state, which could not be committed solely to hired troops, now required that a great proportion of the citizens capable of bearing arms (to be determined by the population, size, geographical and political situation and civilization of the state) should be continually under arms, and supported by the state, in connexion with the professional soldiers. These were, in a peculiar sense, called standing troops.-The introduction of standing armies has been

generally referred to the reign of Charles VII, king of France (1423–1461), who, by means of them, overawed his rebellious vassals, and increased not a little the power of the crown. King Philip Augustus, in consequence of the absence of great numbers of his vassals, in the crusades, had introduced, as early as 1215, the troupes des communes (communiæ communitates parochiarum), composed of the inhabitants of the cities and villages, of which no city furnished more than 400 or 500. These served with the feudal militia, at the expense of the cities to which they belonged, and only at a certain distance from them. The power of the cities was thus increased, and the citizens formed, in war, a separate order, independent of the nobles. It was, in a great measure, owing to this cause, that they came to form a third estate in the administration of government. These troops, however, like the feudal militia, were never summoned, except in case of emergency. Thus the troops of Philip and his successors consisted of feudal militia, of the troupes des communes, and of irregular troops, who were taken into pay (whence soldats, soudoyers), and formed certain companies, as they were called (compagnies). The imperfection of the first class, who often made war on each other, and paid but little regard to the public summons, and the rapine of the latter, led Charles V to meditate a change, and Charles VII resolved to establish a better military system. After long consultation with his nobles, he laid the foundation, in 1445, by selecting 15 captains (capitaines), whom he ordered to choose the bravest men from all the troops, and form them into as many companies. These companies received the name of compagnies d'ordonnance, which was, perhaps, earlier applied only to the royal troops, and were maintained, in war and peace, by the cities and villages." Each of these companies, at first, consisted of 600 horsemen (gens d'armes), exclusive of the volunteers, who soon became numerous, and were distributed in the different cities. Henceforward the feudal militia fell more and more into disrepute, and the vassals assembled their forces only on occasions of great emergency. The feudal militia was not, however, wholly supplanted by mercenaries until the 18th century. In 1448, Charles established a corresponding infantry, called Francs-archers, which, in conjunction with the troops just described, constituted a very respectable army. The military

system thus established in France spread thence through the other countries of Europe. (See Daniel's Histoire de la Milice Française, &c.) With the progress of standing armies in France, and the increase of wealth, the standing armies of other countries increased also; e. g., those of Holland, England and Germany. When this increase arrives at its highest point, and the decision of war becomes almost entirely dependent on numbers, the duty of military service is extended to all the citizens, and a system of conscription is introduced, adapted to the condition, population and necessities of a state, by which all the citizens, of a certain age, capable of bearing arms, are called upon to do military duty, for a longer or shorter period. In this way, standing armies, and the military, considered as a separate profession, are, to a great degree, abolished, and, all the citizens (with few exceptions) able to bear arms being disciplined for the protection of their country, and obliged to act in its defence, the number of troops becomes proportionate to the natural relations of states to each other, and military discipline becomes more liberal and honorable. At least, this has been the case upon the European continent. The increase of the militia renders it also more difficult to give the proportion of the military power of some states to their population, because the standing army is no longer the sole, and, with some governments, not even the chief, military power. MalteBrun, in his Geography, estimates the proportion, in the principal states of Europe, as follows; though, for the reason just given, the estimate is necessarily imperfect:

In England, 1 soldier to

lower :

Inhabitants.

140

110

100

90

69

68

60

59

58

57

49

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would be found a proportion not injurious to the resources of the states. The U. States of America have now on foot not even 6442 men, to which number the army is limited by the law of 1821. The importance of militia is daily increasing. (For further information in regard to the militia, and the great changes which have taken place in standing armies during the last 20 years, see Militia and Army.)

ARNAOUTS, or ALBANIANS; a people of mixed origin, probably the primitive inhabitants of Illyria and Macedonia, intermixed with Goths, Huns and Sclavonians, who have spread in the western part of Rumelia, along the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian seas, and have sent colonies to the Neapolitan and Sicilian coasts. Their language has not risen to the dignity of a written one. They call themselves Skypetars; by the Turks they are called Arnaouts. They are divided into several tribes, among whom the Suliotes (q. v.) are partly of Greek origin. Strong and warlike by nature, the Arnaouts were the best soldiers in the Turkish army. They are frank towards friends and superiors, but allow themselves, like all rude nations, every kind of artifice and perfidy towards their enemies. The oppression, under which they formerly lived, filled them with the desire of liberty. For arts and trades they have no inclination. Agriculture they esteem not so honorable an occupation as arms. Their restless spirit is averse to the uniformity of peace. Yet they are not acquainted with the higher tactics; they never form a line of battle, and do not understand the advantages of strong positions. Hence they are not so efficient against European armies as might be expected from their personal courage. They carry the choicest weapons. Upon their breast they wear a plate of silver, and their legs are covered with a kind of greaves; their hair is cut short in front, and hid by a red bonnet, drawn down to the eyebrows.-Albania, part of the Turkish province Arnaout Vilajetti, a mountainous, maritime country, but very well adapted to the cultivation of wine, fruit, cotton and tobacco, lying along the Adri

try of the Arnaouts.-The Montenegrins (q. v.) in the hills of Montenegro, whom the Turks have not yet been able to vanquish, are distinguished among them. Among the principal towns, we may mention Janina (q. v.) and Scutari, with 12,000 inhabitants (not to be confounded

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with the city of the same name in Anatolia, over against Constantinople), both residences of pachas; also Durazzo, the old Dyrrhachium.

ARNATTO, OF ANNOTTA, is a red dyeing drug, generally imported in lumps, wrapped up in leaves, and produced from the pulp of the seed-vessels of a shrub (bixa orellana), which grows spontaneously in the East and West Indies. This shrub is usually about 7 or 8 feet high, and has heart-shaped and pointed leaves. The flowers, which have each 10 large, peachcolored petals, appear in loose clusters at the ends of the branches, and produce oblong, hairy pods. The seed-vessels of the arnatto shrub are, in appearance, somewhat like those of the chestnut. They each contain from 30 to 40 seeds, enveloped in a kind of pulp, of red color and unpleasant smell, not very unlike the paint called red-lead, when mixed with oil. In the West Indies, the method of extracting the pulp, and preparing it for sale, is to boil this, and the seeds which are mixed with it, in clear water, until the latter are perfectly extricated. They are then taken out, and the pulp is allowed to subside to the bottom of the water; this is drawn off, and the sediment is distributed into shallow vessels, and gradually dried in the shade, until it is sufficiently hard to be worked into lumps or masses for sale. Arnatto, though made in the West Indies, is an object of no great commercial importance; the demand not being sufficient to give much encouragement to its culture. It is now chiefly prepared by the Spaniards in South America, and for the purpose, especially, of mixing with chocolate, to which, in their opinion, it gives a pleasing color and great medical virtue, as well as an improved flavor. The principal consumption of arnatto depends upon painters and dyers; and it is supposed that Scott's nankeen dye is only arnatto dissolved in alkaline lye. This drug is sometimes used by the Dutch farmers to give a rich color to butter; and the double Gloucester, and several other kinds of cheese, are colored with it. The poor occasionally use it instead of saffron. In countries where the arnatto shrubs are found, the roots are employed by the inhabitants in broth, and answer all the purposes of the pulp, though in an inferior degree. The bark is occasionally manufactured into ropes; and the Indians use pieces of the wood to procure fire by friction.

ARNAUD, François-Thomas-Baculard

d'; a prolific French writer, born at Paris, 1718, where he studied with the Jesuits. In his youth, among other pieces, he wrote three tragedies, one of which, Coligny ou la St. Barthélémy, was published in 1740. Voltaire conceived an affection for him, and aided him with money and advice. Frederic II opened a correspondence with him, invited him, afterwards, to Berlin, received him kindly, called him his Ovid, and addressed a poem to him, which closed with these verses:

Déjà l'Apollon de la France
S'achemine à sa décadence;
Venez briller à votre tour.
Elevez-vous, s'il baisse encore;
Ainsi le couchant d'un beau jour
Promet une plus belle aurore.

France's Apollo, Voltaire, thought this comparison not very flattering to himself, and took his revenge by satirizing d'Arnaud's person and verses. At the end of a year, d'Arnaud left Berlin for Dresden, where he had received an appointment, and returned thence to his native country. During the reign of terror, he was imprisoned in a dungeon, and afterwards led a life of miserable poverty. Owing to his carelessness and extravagance, neither the aid of the government nor his own pen could preserve him from want. He died at Paris, in 1805, at the age of 86 years. His best works are, Epreuves du Sentiment, Delassements de l'Homme sensible, Loisirs utiles, and some others. His dramatic works are not esteemed. Only the Comte de Comminge, in 1790, had a short run on the stage. A part of his numerous poems appeared in 1751, in three volumes.

ARNAULD. From this old family of Auvergne, which belongs to the nobility de la robe et de l'épée, are here selected1. Antony A., an advocate at Paris, from 1580, a zealous defender of the cause of Henry IV, distinguished for several political pamphlets, and for his powerful and successful defence of the university of Paris against the Jesuits, in 1594. By this he drew on himself the hatred of the Jesuits, but remained, till his death, in 1618, in possession of his honors, and was esteemed the greatest lawyer of his time. twenty children formed the rallying point of the sect of Jansenists (see Jansenius) in France; the daughters and granddaughters as nuns, in Portroyal, the sons as members of the learned society, who shut themselves up in this monastery, and are known under the name of Messieurs du Port Royal. A son of his eldest

His

daughter, Isaac le Maître de Sacy, also united himself to this society, and, as translator of the Bible that appeared at Mons, played an important part in the history of Jansenism.-2. Robert Arnauld d'Andilly, oldest son of Antony, born at Port Royal, in 1588, died in 1674, made himself known as a very correct French writer, by his religious poems and tracts, and his translations of Josephus's History of the Jews, and of Davila's works. He was far surpassed in intellect by his youngest brother,-3. Antony Arnauld, the youngest child of the lawyer Antony Arnauld, born Feb. 6, 1612. Under the guidance of the abbot of St. Cyr, John du Vergier de Havranne, first head of the Jansenists in France, he devoted himself to theology, and was received, in 1643, among the doctors of the Sorbonne. In the same year, he attacked the Jesuits in two works, De la fréquente Communion, and La Théologie Morale des Jésuites, the first of which occasioned much controversy, because it applied the principles of the Jansenists to the receiving of the sacrament. He excited similar controversies by his work, De l'Autorité de St. Pierre et de St. Paul residente dans le Pape, 1645, by the opinion therein maintained, that the two apostles should be regarded as of equal rank, and as founders of the Roman Catholic church. After 1650, when Jansenism had become an object of public odium, and the watchword of an important party in the state, Arnauld engaged in all the quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy and the government, was their chief writer, and was considered their head. The intrigues of the court occasioned his exclusion from the Sorbonne, 1656, and the persecutions which compelled him to conceal himself. In his retirement, he wrote a system of logic on the principles of Descartes, and a Grammaire raisonnée, which were, for a long time, esteemed as school-books. After the reconciliation between pope Clement IX and the Jansenists, 1668, he appeared in public, and enjoyed the homage which even the court did not refuse to his merits and talents. To satisfy his love of controversy, he attacked the Calvinists in many controversial tracts, and, with his friend Nicole, composed the great work, La Perpétuité de la Foi de l'Eglise Cathol. touchant l'Eucharistie, in opposition to them. For this, a cardinal's hat was destined for him at Rome, but, as he scorned it, and as the court had become unfavorable to him, it was not conferred. On 33

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account of the new persecutions of the court, or rather of the Jesuits, he fled, in 1679, to the Netherlands, employed himself, in his exile, in controversial writings against the Calvinists and the Jesuits, and died, in want, at a village near Liege, Aug. 9, 1694. He was a man of a vigorous and consistent mind, full of solid knowledge and great thoughts; in his writings, bold and violent to bitterness; undaunted in danger, and of irreproachable morals. He is acknowledged to have done much for the improvement of morality in the Catholic church; yet would his genius have been far more useful to the church and to literature, had not his situation and character involved him in a multitude of controversies, which rendered his literary activity, for the most part, fruitless to posterity.

ARNAULT, Antoine Vincent, born at Paris, 1766, an esteemed dramatic poet, laid the foundation of his fame by his tragedy Marius à Minturnes, which was first performed at the theatre in 1791. Soon after appeared his Lucrèce. After the overthrow of the throne, Aug. 10, 1792, and the tragical scene of the 2d of September, he took refuge in England, and thence passed over to Brussels. At his return, he would have been arrested as an emigrant, but the committee declared the law not applicable to the learned author of Marius. He now wrote some operas and the tragedies Cincinnatus and Oscar. In 1797, he went to Italy, where general Bonaparte committed to him the organization of the government of the Ionian isles. At that time, he wrote, partly in Venice, his tragedy Blanche et MontCassin, ou les Vénitiens. In 1798, he embarked in the fleet for Egypt, but was obliged to remain in Malta, on account of the sickness of his brother-in-law, Regnaud de Saint Jean d'Angély. The frigate, in which he was returning to France, was taken by the English; yet A. gained his freedom, and went to Paris, where his tragedy Les Vénitiens was performed, in 1799. In the same year, he became a member, and, in 1805, president, of the national institute. In Sept. 1808, he was named counsellor and secretarygeneral of the university, which offices he retained till 1814. As such, he took part in the preparation of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie. He also drew up for the emperor the general report concerning the decennial prizes. After the abdication of the emperor, he went to meet the king at Compiègne, but, in the year 1815, lost all his offices, which Napoleon restored