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new ones, the ruins of which are still to be seen in Ravenna and Verona. We may consider this period as the era of the origin of modern art. We see a new style taking place of the ancient classical architecture, and eventually extending as far as the conquests of the Goths, through Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, a part of Germany, and even to England, whither, however, the Goths did not penetrate. Whether this modern architecture, which is called Gothic, originated from the Germans, is not decided. We find, in the buildings erected under Theodoric, nothing attempted but simplicity, strength, and the display of national taste in their exterior (the interior is unknown to us). But the buildings erected during the Lombard dominion in Italy (from 568), and all the monastic architecture of that time, have been erroneously called Gothic. Since the error was perceived, it has been distinguished, by the name of the old Gothic, from the proper Gothic, which is called the modern Gothic. The Lombards entertained no respect for antiquities, and neither spared nor preserved them. Whatever they built was tasteless and faulty. On the exterior of their churches they placed small semicircular columns; and small pillars in a row along the cornice of the pediments; in the interior, coarse pillars united by semicircular arches; the small windows and doors were finished with semicircles; the columns, capitals and arches were often overlaid with incongruous sculpture; the roofs of the naves covered with beams and boards, which were afterwards changed into arches, and, on this account, often required arched buttresses on the outside. This Lombard style in architecture clearly proves the decline of science and art. It was employed, in the 7th century, in Pavia, the chief city of the Lombard kingdom, in the erection of the churches of St. John and St. Michael; at Parma, in the church of St. John; at Bergamo, in the church of St. Julia; in the chapel of Altenőtting, in Bavaria; in the castle of Nuremberg, in the Scottish church at Ratisbon, &c. The architects driven from Constantinople (Byzantium) were the first who combined with it the use of the Ionic pedestals and columns, provided with capitals formed according to their own taste, among which were twisted ones. In this Lombard-Byzantine style were erected the cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms and Mentz, also the church Miniato al Monte, near Florence, and the most ancient part of the minster of Stras

burg. Cupolas were afterwards added, as used in the East, and these, as well as the tasteless capitals, and the many slender pillars and minarets, of which we often see 2 rows, one on another, indicate the proper Byzantine or Oriental style of architecture. In this style were erected, besides the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, and others, the church of St. Mark, in Venice, the Baptisterium and the cathedral of Pisa, and the church of St. Vitalis, in Ravenna. The Normans, who had settled in Sicily, built the cathedral of Messina upon the foundation of an old temple,-a huge but tasteless edifice, in which, by means of the changes made in different centuries, we may observe, at the same time, the rise and fall of the art. The Vandals, Alans, Suevi and Visigoths had penetrated into Spain and Portugal: the Arabs and Moors expelled them in the 8th century, and destroyed the kingdom of the Goths. The Mussulman conquerors had, at that time, almost exclusive possession of the arts and sciences. Saracen architects rose in Greece, Italy, Sicily, and other countries: after some time, many Christians, particularly Greeks, joined them, and formed together a fraternity, who kept secret the rules of their art, and whose members recognised one another by particular signs. (See Freemasons.) At this period, three different styles of architecture prevailed-the Arabian, a peculiar style, formed after Greek models; the Moorish, which originated in Spain, out of the remains of Roman edifices; and the modern Gothic, which originated in the kingdom of the Visigoths, in Spain, through the mixture of the Arabian and Moorish architecture, and flourished from the 11th until the 15th century. The 2 first styles differ but little from each other: the Moorish style is principally distinguished from the Arabian by arches in the form of a horse-shoe. But the Gothic, or old German, is very different. Swinburne mentions the following marks of distinction: The Gothic arches are pointed; the Arabian, circular: the Gothic churches have pointed and straight towers; the mosques terminate in globes, and have here and there minarets. covered with a ball or a cone: the Arabian walls are adorned with Mosaic and stucco, which we find in no ancient church in the Gothic style. The Gothic columns often stand united in groups, over which is placed a very low entablature, upon which arches are erected; or the arches stand immediately upon the capitals of the col

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in the 12th century, a German architect, named William (Guglielmo), and, in the 13th, Jacob, with the surname Capo, who died in 1262, and his pupil or son, Arnolf, are mentioned as having built churches and convents in Florence. The modern Gothic style passed from the churches and abbeys to the castles, palaces, bridges and city gates, many of which were built in this manner; e. g., in Milan, 16 city gates of marble, and several new palaces; in Padua, 7 bridges, and 3 new palaces; in Genoa, 2 docks and a splendid aqueduct; and the town of Asti, in 1280, almost entirely. Architecture was continually improving in Italy, particularly in the 14th century. Galeazzo Visconti finished the great bridge at Pavia, and built a palace which had not then its equal. About the same time, the famous cathedral of Milan was erected. The marquises of Este erected handsome edifices at Ferrara, and Albert the splendid palace at Belsiore. In Bologna, the great church of St. Petronius was begun, and, in Florence, the famous tower of the cathedral. The 15th century, in which the study of ancient architecture was revived, was greatly distinguished. The dukes of Ferrara, Borso and Ercole of Este, were active patrons of architecture. Duke Francesco en ellished Milan with the ducal palace, the castle Porta di Giove, the hospital and other edifices. Ludovico Sforza erected the buildings of the university at Pavia and the hospital of Milan. The popes adorned Rome, and Lorenzo de' Medici, Florence, with splendid buildings. The artists returned to the monuments of antiquity, and studied their beautiful forms and just proportions. The most illustrious architects of this time were Filippo Brunelleschi, who built, at Florence, the dome of the cathedral, the church S. Spirito, and the palace Pitti, besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro and Mantua; Battista Alberti, who wrote, at the same time, on architecture; Michelozzi Bramante, who commenced the building of St. Peter's; Michael Angelo Buonaotti, who erected its magnificent dome; and Giocondo, who built much in France, and afterwards directed, with Raphael, the building of the church of St. Peter's. These were followed by others, who proceeded in their spirit-Palladio, Scamozzi, Serlio, Barozzio, known by the name of Vignola. They are the founders of the existing taste in architecture. That, however, they studied their art in those works of antiquity which had already deviated from the early purity and elevated

grandeur, is evident in their buildings, from the many curved and twisted ornaments, the circular, irregular and cut pediments, the coupled columns, high pedestals, and other things, which were unknown to architecture at the time of Pericles. Thus a new period in archi tecture had begun in Italy. Italian masters, and young artists sent to Italy, introduced the Roman taste into foreign countries, which gradually supplanted the Gothic. Since that time, architecture has experienced different destinies in different countries. It has risen and declined at different periods; yet laudable attempts have been made, in recent times, to advance it to its true perfection, though we cannot affirm that they have succeeded every where.-In America, the pure Grecian architecture is gradually prevailing, either because this style is founded on plainer principles than the others, or because the Grecian really deserves to be called a republican style, since it is better adapted than the Gothic to small buildings, and does not require large and splendid edifices (a great number of which can never exist in a democracy), in order to display all its beauty. (For an account of modern architecture in different countries, see the respective articles.)

ARCHIVES; a collection of written documents, containing the rignts, privileges, claims, treaties, constitutions, &c., of a family, corporation, community, city or kingdom; also, the place where such documents are kept. There are, accordingly, private and public or state archives. Archives were known among the most ancient people. The Israelites, Greeks and Romans had them in their temples, and the Christians, at first, preserved important manuscripts with the sacred vessels and relics, till proper places were assigned to them. Those governments which transact every thing by writing have, of course, much larger archives than others; thus the archives in every branch of government in Prussia and Austria are immense.-According to Wageinselius, the archives of the German empire contain very few documents before the time of the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg (who was elected in 1273), or even of the subsequent century. At the end of the 15th century, and at the beginning of the 16th, under Maximilian I, the archives of the empire received a new form, and have been preserved with great care. Some historians, (e. g., Schmidt, in his History of the Germans), have made the most diligent

and praiseworthy use of them.

The

modern archives of Prussia are excellently arranged; probably none are so complete in respect to statistical matters. The English have been so careful in preserving their archives, that other European nations have often found documents highly important to themselves in London. In France, the archives were dispersed all over the country till the revolution, when, by law of Sept. 7, 1790, they were put in a common place of deposit, after a very large quantity of documents had been destroyed. This immense collection of public acts is now in the ancient hotel Soubise, au Marais, in Paris. The laws of Oct. 10, 1792, and Feb. 20, 1793, put the whole management of the archives on a systematic footing. In 1814, June 6, the archives of the navy and the war departments were organized, in order to preserve the historical documents, military memoirs, plans and maps, &c. The archives of the U. States are casily accessible, and proper recommendation will open them to any one who wants to use them for scientific purposes. ARCHONS; the highest magistrates in Athens. (See Attica.) The Jews, also, had archons in their captivity.

ARCHYTAS of Tarentum; a famous Pythagorean, renowned as a truly wise man, a great mathematician, statesman and general. He devoted himself, at Metapontum, to the study of the Pythagorean philosophy. Being the contemporary of Plato (Olympiad 96; 400 B. C.), he must have lived a century later than Pythagoras, and was still alive when Plato travelled to Sicily. Hence he cannot be regarded as the instructer of Philolaus, who was older; and still less as the immediate scholar of Pythagoras. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and nechanical problems. He also constructed an automaton (a flying pigeon). Per⚫naps he was also the inventor of the categories in philosophy. It is, however, still undecided whether Aristotle's work on the ten categories is drawn from his work or forged. Horace mentions him, in one of his poems, as having been drowned on the coast of Apulia.

ARCKENHOLZ, John, the historian, was born, 1695, in Swedish Finland, and died 1777, at Stockholm. He wrote Mémoires concernant Christine, Reine de la Suède, Amsterdam, 1751-60, 4 vols. 4to.

ARÇON, Jean Claude Éléonore d', inventor of the floating batteries for the 30

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attack of Gibraltar, born, 1732, at Pontarlier, was designed for the church, but his father, a lawyer, yielded to the decided inclination of his son for military science. He was received into the military school at Mézières, 1754, and, the following year, into the corps of engineers. In the seven years' war, he highly distinguished himself, particularly at the defence of Cassel, in 1761. In 1774, he was employed in drawing a map of the Jura and the Vosges, and, to expedite the labor, he invented a new mode of shading, much superior to the common one. He was gifted with an inventive imagination and an unwearied activity. He wrote much, and in all his writings, which are read with pleasure in spite of their incorrect style, we find a richness of ideas, and traces of a splendid genius. In 1780, he invented the floating batteries. The jealousy and disunion of the French and Spanish generals alone prevented the event from answering his expectation. Elliot, who directed the defence of Gibraltar, did full justice to the inventor.At the invasion of Holland, under Dumouriez, he took several places, including Breda. He then went into retirement, where he wrote his last and best work, the result of all the rest,-Considérations Militaires et Politiques sur les Fortifications, (Military and Political Considerations on Fortifications). The first consul placed him in the senate in 1799, and he died July 1, 1800.

ARCONA; the most northern point of Germany (if Prussia Proper is not included therein); the north-eastern promontory of the island Rügen, in the parish Altenkirchen, upon the peninsula Wittow, consisting of chalk, flint and petrifactions. Here was formerly situated the old Vandal castle, with the chief temple of the god Swantewit, who was highly venerated by all the Sclavonians in North Germany, and whose worship king Woldemar I of Denmark put an end to, by capturing the castle, in 1168. The country is delightful and fertile. The shores are precipitous and abrupt, and very picturesque. In the vicinity of the old Herthasburg, in the holy grove of Hertha, may yet be seen the deep lake which served for ablutions and secret sacrifices. Travellers frequently visit the island, which, on account of its seclusion, abounds with old and marvellous tales. (See Rügen.) Lately, a light-house has been erected on the promontory of A. by the Prussian government.

ARCOT; a large district of Hindostan.

It was formerly independent, but, since 1802, it has been under the British dominion. The exports consist chiefly of arrack, pepper, palmirahs, received from Ceylon, Travancore and Prince of Wales's island.

ARCOT (anciently Arcati, Regia Sora, and Soromandala); a city of Hindostan, capital of the Carnatic, on the Peliar, 57 miles W. S. W. of Madras; lon. 79° 29′ E.; lat. 12° 52′ N. The fort is a mile in circumference. The city is extensive, and manufactures coarse cotton cloth. Hyder Ali gained possession of it Sept. 30, 1780, after having defeated the English, who had possessed it since 1760.

ARCTIC; an epithet given to the north pole, or the pole raised above our horizon. It is called the arctic pole, on account of the constellation of the Little Bear, in Greek called apkros, the last star in the tail whereof points out the north pole.Arctic circle is a lesser circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and 23° 28′ distant from the north pole, from whence its name. This and its opposite, the antarctic (q. v.), are called the two polar circles, and may be conceived to be described by the motion of the poles of the ecliptic round the poles of the equator, or of the world.

ARCTURUS; a fixed star of the first magnitude, in the constellation of Arctophylax or Boötes.

ARCTUS (Greek, OKTOS); a name given by the Greeks to 2 constellations, called, by the Latins, Ursa (major and minor), and by us, the Bear (great and little).

ARCUATION; the method of raising, by layers, such trees as cannot be raised from seed. The process consists in bending to the ground the branches which spring from the offsets or stools, after they are planted. Arcuation is based on this principle in vegetable life, that the plant depends chiefly upon external influences, and that a part, which now has become a branch by the influence of air, may be easily turned into a root by the influence of the earth. In fact, alleys of trees have been made, which, after growing to a considerable size, have had the branches

square miles, and had, in 1828, a popula. tion of 328,419.

ARDENNES; a chain of mountains covered with woods, between the Meuse and the Moselle, in the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. In the time of the Romans, the wood of A. comprehended a large part of Gallia Belgica, and, according to Cæsar, extended from the Rhine, through the country of Treves, to the territory of the Remii. More than 20 rivers and brooks take their rise in it. The mines are no longer worked for iron, copper, and the precious metals. Sheep are raised here in considerable numbers, and the country affords much game.-The name A. is derived from the Celtic ar, in, and duanna, well of God.-In a wider sense, the mountains extending from the former French Hainault to the Moselle are called A.; whence, also, a department in the north-eastern part of France, containing about 2100 square miles and 281,624 inhabitants, the chief city of which is Mézières, has the same name.

ARDEY; the chain of mountains extending along the Ruhr, in the county of Mark, from Frödenberg to Volmarstein. It consists of rough sandstone, above which are masses of coal. This mineral is very important in this populous manufacturing region. The ruins of a castle, where the counts of Ardey dwelt in the 7th century, are still to be seen in this mountain.

ARE; a superficial square measure in France, substituted for the former square rod. It consists of 1076.44 English square feet. The 10th part of an are is called a deciare, and the 100th a centiare. Decare is a surface of ten ares.

AREA (from the Latin, in which it signified, first, a threshing-floor; later, a vacant place bounded on all sides, or before a public building); in geometry, the superficial contents of any figure; in geography, the contents of any surface. The amount of the oceanic area of our globe is 160,152,000 square miles; and of the different parts of the world as follows:—

Polynesia,

Asia, Europe, Africa,

America, Greenland, &c. Amount of land area, . This, with the oceanic area, gives, as the amount of the area of the earth, . . . .

13,220,000

38,840,000 160,152,000

198,992,000