ral bishops. In the year 1828, pope Leo XII appointed, after much delay, an archbishop in Colombia, whom Bolivar had proposed. Perhaps the two most important archbishops in history were those of Cologne and Mentz. These archbishops were sovereigns of a considerable country, electors of the German empire, and the two highest officers under the emperor. Till Napoleon dissolved the German empire, they played a conspicuous part in the history of the continent. In France, there are now 9 archbishops; in Spain, 8; in Portugal, 2; in Hungary, 3; in Italy, 38.

ARCHDEACON. This ecclesiastical officer, who was at first only the chief among the deacons in a cathedral or metropolitan church, in the 5th century, acquired an importance, which raised him above the rank of presbyters, and placed him nearly on an equality with the bishops. The archdeacons have since been not mere assistants, but representatives of the bishops in the dioceses and councils. By degrees, the affairs of the bishop's jurisdiction, the superintendence of the clergy, the churches, convents, and ecclesiastical possessions, the right of visitation, the trial of heresies in the western bishoprics, came to be exercised by the archdeacons. Until the 9th century, they were only delegates of the bishops, but they afterwards became independent officers of the church, with almost episcopal power, partly through the weakness and ignorance of their principals, partly through the division of the dioceses, which took place in the 8th century, into several smaller districts or achdeaconates, over which the archdeacons presided. In the 11th and 12th centuries, they were acknowledged as the most influential prelates of the church, and at the summit of their power. On the establishment of the general episcopal tribunals under particular officers or general vicars, in the 13th century, the dignity of the archdeacons diminished, and their jurisdiction in most dioceses, in the 15th and 16th centuries, passed to the new courts. In the 18th century, they were still regarded as dignitaries in some chapters; but now this office, principally on account of the contention about rank with the deans and other officers, is almost wholly abolshed in the Catholic church. In the chapters established again since the downfall of Napoleon, it has not been revived. In the Greek church, since the 7th century, there have been no archdeacons, except one in the Greek imperial court

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at Constantinople. The episcopal church in England, on the contrary, still has archdeacons, who are the deputies of the bishops, to superintend the districts. The archdeacons in the evangelical Lu theran church enjoy no particular privileges, except precedence over the other deacons. In Hamburg, they are the second ecclesiastics in the principal churches. ARCHELAUS.-1. A Greek philosopher, a disciple of Anaxagoras. He flourished about 440 years B. C. Like his predecessor, he chiefly devoted his attention to the origin of things. He first taught at Lampsacus, and subsequently removed to Athens, where Socrates became his disciple and successor.-2. A king of Macedon, natural son of Perdiccas II, and his successor. He entertained at his court Euripides, and employed Zeuxis' pencil. He died about 398 B. C.-3. The son of Herod the Great. His reign is described as most tyrannical and bloody. The people at length accused him before Augustus (Judea being then dependent upon Rome). The emperor, after hearing his defence, banished him to Vienne, in Gaul, where he died. To avoid the fury of this monster, Joseph and Mary retired to Nazareth.-4. The son of Apollonius, a sculptor. He was a native of Îonia, and is thought to have lived under Claudius. He executed in marble the apotheosis of Homer, which was found, in 1568, at a place called Fratocchia, belonging to the house of Colonna.

ARCHENHOLZ, John William von; a very voluminous German author; born 1743, died 1812. He is known in foreign countries by his England and Italy, translated into almost all the living languages of Europe. He also wrote Annals of British History, from 1788, in 20 vols., 1789-98. Perhaps his most important work is his History of the Seven Years' War (in German), 2 vols., Berlin, 1793.

ARCHERY; the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. This art, either as a means of offence in war, or of subsistence and amusement in time of peace, may be traced in the history of almost every nation. It always, however, declines with the progress of time, which introduces weapons more to be depended on, and not so easily exhausted as a bundle of arrows. With the ancients, the sagittarii, or archers, were an important class of troops. In the middle ages, the bow was much more used by the burghers than by the barons. The Swiss were famous archers. In modern times, this weapon is used by the Asiatic nations, by

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the tribes of Africa, by the American Indians, &c. In 1813 and 1814, irregular troops, belonging to the Russian army, particularly the Bashkeers, appeared in Paris, armed with bows and arrows, and made surprising shots. The English monarchs, in former times, took great pains to encourage the exercise of shooting with the long bow, as appears from several acts in the reigns of Edward III, IV, Henry VII and VIII. Every citizen and burgher was ordered to practise archery, and the founder of Harrow school insisted upon shooting with the bow, as a fundamental part of the regulations of the institution. In Germany, there still exist, in some cities, societies of archers. The bows of the middle ages exhibit sometimes very excellent workmanship.

ARCHES COURT (curia de arcubus); the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to the archbishop of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It is so called from the church in London, commonly called St. Mary le Bow (de arcubus), where it was formerly held, which church is named Bow church, from the steeple, which is supported by pillars built archwise, like so many bent bows. The jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. An appeal, however, lies to the king.

ARCHIL, OF ARCHILLA, called, also, rocella and orsielle; a whitish moss, which grows upon rocks, in the Canary and cape Verd islands, and yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive, indeed, but extremely beautiful. When it is prepared for dyeing, it is called tacmus, or litmus (q. v.)

ARCHILOCHUS; a Greek poet, born on the island of Paros. He flourished about 700 B. C. His ardent spirit hurried him into the whirlpool of political party, and he was obliged to leave his country. He retired to Tarsus, where he fought against the Thracians, and lost his shield, more by accident than cowardice. He afterwards visited Greece, but the Spartans banished him from their state. He gained the laurel crown, however, at the Olympic games, for a hymn to Hercules. Some say he was killed in battle; others, that he was assassinated. A. was no less formidable with the pen than with the sword. Lycambes, who had promised him his daughter, and faithlessly violated his agreement, hung himself in despair on account of the satires in which the offended poet wreaked on him his revenge. With the same severity, he persecuted all his fellow citizens, who were unfortunate enough to displease him. His

memory was honored in all Greece so highly, that he was placed beside Homer. His iambic poems were renowned for the force of the style, the liveliness of the metaphors, a sententious conciseness, elevated feeling, and a powerful, but bitter spirit of satire. In other lyric poems of a higher character, he was also considered as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments, collected by Liebel, Leipsic, 1812-17. He used the half-pentameter verse in his poems, whence this verse is called, from him, Archilochian verse : ཡ་

ARCHIMANDRITE; in the Greek church, abbots or general-abbots, who have the superintendence of many abbots and convents; because, in the ancient Greek church, the abbots were called mandra, and archi is the Greek prefix (see Arch). In Sicily, the abbots are called thus because their convents were originally of Greek institution, and conform to the rules of St. Basil. The general-abbots of the united Greeks in Poland, Galicia, Transylvania, Hungary, Sclavonia and Venice bear this title.

ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated among the ancient geometricians, born at Syracuse, about 287 B. C., a relation of king Hiero, appears to have borne no public office, but to have devoted himself entirely to science. We cannot fully estimate his services to mathematics, for want of an acquaintance with the previous state of science; still we know that he enriched it with discoveries of the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Euclid, in his elements, considers only the relation of some of these magnitudes to each other, but does not compare them with surfaces and solids bounded by straight lines. A. has developed the propositions necessary for effecting this comparison, in his treatises on the sphere and cylinder, the spheroid and conoid, and in his work on the measure of the circle. He rose to still more abstruse considerations, in his treatise on the spiral, which, however, even those acquainted with the subject can with difficulty comprehend. A. is the only one among the ancients, who has left us any thing satisfactory on the theory of mechanics, and on hydrostatics. first taught the principle, "that a body, immersed in a fluid, loses as much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid," and determined, by means of it, how much alloy an artist had fraudu

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lently added to a crown, which king Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to have caused him so much joy, that he hastened home from the bath undressed, and crying out, "I have found it, I have found it!" Practical mechanics, also, appears to have been a new science at the time of A.; for his exclamation that he could move the earth, if he had a point without it to stand upon, shows the enthusiasm with which the extraordinary performances of his machines had inspired him. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the endless screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse, he devoted all his talents to the defence of his native country. Polybius, Livy and Plutarch speak in detail, and with admiration, of the machines with which he repelled the attacks of the Romans. They make no mention of his having set on fire the enemy's fleet by burning-glasses, a thing which is, in itself, very improbable, and related only in the later writings of Galen and Lucian. At the moment when the Romans, under Marcellus, gained possession of the city by assault, tradition relates that A. was sitting in the marketplace, absorbed in thought, and contemplating some figures which he had drawn in the sand. To a Roman soldier, who addressed him, he is related to have cried out, "Disturb not my circle!" but the rough warrior little heeded his request, and struck him down. As the conquest of Syracuse is placed in the year 212 B. C., Archimedes must have been 75 years old when he lost his life. On his tombstone was placed a cylinder, with a sphere inscribed in it, thereby to immortalize his discovery of their mutual relation, on which he set particular value. Cicero, who was appointed quæstor over Sicily, found this monument in a thicket which concealed it.

ARCHIPELAGO ; a corruption of Egeopelago, the modern Greek pronunciation of Alyalov Пayos, the Ægean sea. The term, however, is applied to any tract of sea abounding in small islands, and to the clusters of islands situated therein. The group to which the name is most generally given is that lying in the Ægean sea, between the coasts of ancient Greece and Asia Minor. According to their situation, ney are divided into the islands belonging to Europe and to Asia. The former lie together, almost in a circle, and for this reason have been called, by the Greeks, the Cyclades (q. v.); the latter,

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being farther from one another, the Sporades (q. v.) All these islands are in the government of the capudan pacha, to which, however, Candia, with the little islands lying about it, does not belong. (Compare with this article Hydra, Negropont, Scio, Samos, Rhodes, Cyprus, &c.)

Archipelago, Northern, extends between the coasts of Kamschatka and the west coast of America, and comprehends four clusters: 1, Sasignan, containing five islands; 2, Khoa, including eight islands; both these groups together are called the Aleutian islands (q. v.); 3, the Andreanoffski Ostrova, comprising sixteen islands; 4, the Lyssil or Fox islands, including, also, sixteen islands. Archipelago of Lazarus, near the coast of Malabar and Malacca.-Archipelago of the Great Cyclades; a cluster of islands in the South Pacific ocean, so named by Bougainville, and afterwards called the New Hebrides by Cook.-Archipelago of the Philippines, containing the Philippines, Moluccas, Celebes, &c. Some call it, also, the Great A.-Archipelago of the Recherche ; several groups of islands, rocks and shoals, on the south coast of New Holland, extending from between 34° to 34°30′ S. lat., and 121°30′ to 123° 20′ E. lon. The largest islands were named, by the French, Mondrain and Middle island.Many other A. might be mentioned.

ARCHITECTURE, in the general sense of the word, is the art of erecting durable, commodious, healthful and handsome buildings of all kinds, adapted to the purposes of the builder. According to the objects to which it is applied, architecture is commonly divided into civil architecture, military architecture (see Fortification), and naval architecture. For the sake of convenience, further divisions are sometimes introduced, such as hydraulic, mining, &c., architecture. Upon the continent of Europe, architecture is often divided into private and public. The latter includes all structures commonly undertaken or particularly superintended by government. In Germany and France, there is a building police, which oversees both public and private edifices, and takes care that security and health are provided for in both.-There is something divine in man, which prompts him to look beyond the mere supply of his necessities, and to aim continually at higher objects. He therefore soon expected from his habitation and his temples more than mere utility. He aimed at elegance, and architecture became, by degrees, a fine art, differing

essentially, however, from the other fine arts in these respects; 1, that it is based on utility; 2, that it elevates mathematical laws to rules of beauty. Painting and sculpture are only the expression of the feeling of the beautiful. On the contrary, every creation of architecture must appear to have utility in view. A column or an architrave, which supports nothing, appears ridiculous, and every part of a building ought to show the purpose for which it is designed.

Architecture appears to have been among the earliest inventions, and its works have been commonly regulated by some principle of hereditary imitation. Whatever rude structure the climate and materials of any country have obliged its early inhabitants to adopt for their temporary shelter, the same structure, with all its prominent features, has been afterwards kept up by their refined and opulent posterity. Thus the Egyptian style of building has its origin in the cavern and mound;* the Chinese architecture is modelled from the tent; the Grecian is derived from the wooden cabin, and the Gothic from the bower of trees.-The essential elementary parts of a building are those which contribute to its support, enclosure and covering. Of these, the most important are the foundation, the column, the wall, the lintel, the arch, the vault, the dome and the roof.-In laying the foundation of any building, it is necessary to dig to a certain depth in the earth, to secure a solid basis, below the reach of frost and common accidents. The most solid basis is rock, or gravel which has not been moved. Next to these are clay and sand, provided no other excavations have been made in the immediate neighborhood. From this basis a stone wall is carried up to the surface of the ground, and constitutes the foundation. Where it is intended that the superstructure shall press unequally, as at its piers, chimneys, or columns, it is sometimes of use to occupy the space between the points of pressure by an inverted arch. This distributes the pressure equally, and prevents the foundation from springing between the different points. In loose or muddy situations, it is always unsafe to build, unless we can reach the solid bottom below. In salt marshes and flats, this is done by depositing timbers, or driving wooden piles into the earth, and raising walls upon them. The preservative quality of the salt will keep these timbers unimpaired

* Wilkins' Vitruvius, p. xvii.

for a great length of time, and makes the foundation equally secure with one of brick or stone. The simplest member in any building, though by no means an essential one to all, is the column or pillar. This is a perpendicular part, commonly of equal breadth and thickness, not intended for the purpose of enclosure, but simply for the support of some part of the superstructure. The principal force which a column has to resist, is that of perpendicular pressure. In its shape, the shaft of a column should not be exactly cylindrical, but, since the lower part must support the weight of the superior part, in addition to the weight which presses equally on the whole column, the thickness should gradually decrease from bottom to top. The outline of columns should be a little curved, so as to represent a portion of a very long spheroid, or paraboloid, rather than of a cone. This figure is the joint result of two calculations, independent of beauty of appearance. One of these is, that the form best adapted for stability of base is that of a cone; the other is, that the figure, which would be of equal strength throughout for supporting a superincumbent weight, would be generated by the revolution of two parabolas round the axis of the column, the vertices of the curves being at its extremities.*-The swell of the shafts of columns was called the entasis by the ancients. It has been lately found, that the columns of the Parthenon, at Athens, which have been commonly supposed straight, deviate about an inch from a straight line, and that their greatest swell is at about one third of their height. Columns in the antique orders are usually made to diminish one sixth or one seventh of their diameter, and sometimes even one fourth. The Gothic pillar is commonly of equal thickness throughout. -The wall, another elementary part of a building, may be considered as the lateral continuation of a column, answering the purpose both of enclosure and support. A wall must diminish as it rises, for the same reasons, and in the same proportion, as the column. It must diminish still more rapidly if it extends through several stories, supporting weights at different heights. A wall, to possess the greatest strength, must also consist of pieces, the upper and lower surfaces of which are horizontal and regular, not rounded nor oblique. The walls of most of the an

*See Tredgold's Principles of Carpentry, p. 50. + By Messrs. Allason and Cockerell. See Brande's Journal, vol. x. p. 204.

cient structures, which have stood to the present time, are constructed in this manner, and frequently have their stones bound together with bolts and cramps of iron. The same method is adopted in such modern structures as are intended to possess great strength and durability, and, in some cases, the stones are even dovetailed together, as in the light-houses at Eddystone and Bell Rock. But many of our modern stone walls, for the sake of cheapness, have only one face of the stones squared, the inner half of the wall being completed with brick; so that they can, in reality, be considered only as brick walls faced with stone. Such walls are said to be liable to become convex outwardly, from the difference in the shrinking of the cement. Rubble walls are made of rough, irregular stones, laid in mortar. The stones should be broken, if possible, so as to produce horizontal surfaces. The coffer walls of the ancient Romans were made by enclosing successive portions of the intended wall in a box, and filling it with stones, sand and mortar, promiscuously. This kind of structure must have been extremely insecure. The Pantheon, and various other Roman buildings, are surrounded with a double brick wall, having its vacancy filled up with loose bricks and cement. The whole has gradually consolidated into a mass of great firmness. The reticulated walls of the Romans, having bricks with oblique surfaces, would, at the present day, be thought highly unphilosophical. Indeed, they could not long have stood, had it not been for the great strength of their cement. Modern brick walls are laid with great precision, and depend for firmness more upon their position than upon the strength of their cement. The bricks being laid in horizontal courses, and continually overlaying each other, or breaking joints, the whole mass is strongly interwoven, and bound together. Wooden walls, composed of timbers covered with boards, are a common, but more perishable kind. They require to be constantly covered with a coating of a foreign substance, as paint or plaster, to preserve them from spontaneous decomposition. In some parts of France, and elsewhere, a kind of wall is made of earth, rendered compact by ramming it in moulds or cases. This method is called building in pisé, and is much more durable than the nature of the material would lead us to suppose. Walls of all kinds are greatly strengthened by angles and curves, also by projections, such as

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pilasters, chimneys and buttresses. These projections serve to increase the breadth of the foundation, and are always to be made use of in large buildings, and in walls of considerable length.-The lintel, or beam, extends in a right line over a vacant space, from one column or wall to another. The strength of the lintel will be greater in proportion as its transverse vertical diameter exceeds the horizontal, the strength being always as the square of the depth. The floor is the lateral continuation or connexion of beams by means of a covering of boards.—The arch is a transverse member of a building, answering the same purpose as the lintel, but vastly exceeding it in strength. The arch, unlike the lintel, may consist of any number of constituent pieces, without impairing its strength. It is, however, necessary that all the pieces should possess a uniform shape, the shape of a portion of a wedge, and that the joints, formed by the contact of their surfaces, should point towards a common centre. In this case, no one portion of the arch can be displaced or forced inward; and the arch cannot be broken by any force which is not sufficient to crush the materials of which it is made. In arches made of common bricks, the sides of which are parallel, any one of the bricks might be forced inward, were it not for the adhesion of the cement. Any two of the bricks, however, constitute a wedge, by the disposition of their mortar, and cannot collectively be forced inward. An arch of the proper form, when complete, is rendered stronger, instead of weaker, by the pressure of a considerable weight, provided this pressure be uniform. While building, however, it requires to be supported by a centring of the shape of its internal surface, until it is complete. The upper stone of an arch is called the key-stone, but is not more essential than any other. In regard to the shape of the arch, its most simple form is that of the semi-circle. It is, however, very frequently a smaller arc of a circle, and, still more frequently, a portion of an ellipse. The simplest theory of an arch supporting itself only, is that of Dr. Hooke. The arch, when it has only its own weight to bear, may be considered as the inversion of a chain, suspended at each end. The chain hangs in such a form, that the weight of each link or portion is held in equilibrium by the result of two forces acting at its extremities; and these forces, or tensions, are produced, the one by the weight of the portion of the chain below