sea-port, Jidda, population 5000, is indeed the residence of a Turkish pacha, but the sheriff of Mecca conducts the government himself. In the Syrian deserts lie the ruins of Palmyra. (q. v.) On the western coast of Arabia there are high chains of mountains, which unite on the north with the mountains of Syria, and are connected with the primitive mountains of Asia: among them are Sinai and Horeb. Of the rivers, which appear only after great rains, and seldom reach the sea, the Aftan, on the sea-coast is the most considerable: the Euphrates lies on the northern boundary.-The climate is very various. Countries where it rains half the year alternate with others, where dew supplies the place of rain for the whole season. The greatest cold prevails on high places, and the most oppressive heat in the plains. Damp winds succeed to the dry simoom, which is as dangerous to life as the harmattan and khamseen in Africa. The soil consists of sandy deserts and the most fruitful fields. Wheat, millet, rice, kitchen vegetables, coffee (which grows on trees in Arabia, its home, and on bushes in America, the plants being kept low for the sake of gathering the fruit more easily), manna, sugar-cane, cotton, tropical fruits, senna-leaves, gums, aloes, myrrh, tobacco, indigo, odorous woods, balsam, &c., are the rich products of Arabia. There are, also, precious stones, iron and other metals (gold excepted, which the ancients, however, seem to have found pure in rivers and in the earth). The animals are, mules, asses, camels, buffaloes, horned cattle, goats, noble horses, lions, hyænas, antelopes, foxes, apes, jer boas; birds of all sorts, pelicans, ostriches, &c.; esculent locusts, scorpions, &c.The inhabitants are principally genuine Arabs, who speak a peculiar language, and profess the Mohammedan religion. The Arabians are still, as in the most ancient times, Nomades, of patriarchal simplicity. They are herdsmen and husbandmen. A passionate love of liberty, independence and justice keeps them in a condition in many respects happy. The old "Peace be with thee" is still their common salutation. "Welcome! what do you wish ?" is the address to a stranger, whose entertainment costs him only a "God reward you." They practise robbery, though never at the expense of the laws of hospitality. This warlike people have much activity and skill in bodily exercises; a good physical conformation; in warm plains, a skin of a

brownish-yellow: their hardy education, cleanliness and temperance secure them from sickness. They call themselves Bedouins (Bedevi, sons of the desert, the Arabes Sienita among the ancients), and are distinguished by their mode of life from the Moors, who dwell in houses, and carry on, exclusively, agriculture, trade and commerce. Besides the original inhabitants, Christians, Jews, Turks and Banians dwell in the country. Formerly, Arabia was the great depot of the Phoenician land trade: at present, the trade by land and sea is wholly in foreign hands. That by land is conducted by caravans. In the high schools of the Arabians, instruction is given in astronomy (rather astrology), pharmacology, and philosophy, so called: attention is also paid to history and poetry. The Bedouins remain in the deepest ignorance. Their government is very simple: the chiefs are named the great emir, the emir, and sheikh, and the judges are called cadi. The Turkish sultan is, indeed, nominal master of the country, but the free Arabian scorns his imbecile rule, and only obeys when he pleases.-The history of the Arabians, before Mohammed, is obscure, and, on account of its slight connexion with the rest of the world, of little interest. The original inhabitants of the country are called by the present Arabs Bajadites (the lost). The present Arabs derive their origin from Joktan or Kahtan in part, and in part from Ishmael. The descendants of the former call themselves, emphatically, Arabs; those of the latter, Mostarabs. The name Arab signifies an inhabitant of the West (for they are in that direction from the Asiatics): in Europe and Africa, they were called Saracens (inhabitants of the East). The older Arabian historians understand by Arabia only Yemen. Hedsjaz (the rocky) they regard as belonging partly to Egypt, partly to Syria; and the rest of the country they call the Syrian desert. princes (tobbai) of this land were, anciently, entirely of the race of Kahtan, to which belonged the family of the Homeyrites, who ruled over Yemen two thousand years. The Arabians of Yemen and a part of the desert of Arabia lived in cities, and practised agriculture: they had commerce, also, with the East Indies, Persia, Syria and Abyssinia; and to the latter of these countries they sent many colonies, so that it was probably peopled by them. The rest of the population then, as now, led a wandering life in the deserts.-The religion of the Arabians, in

The

the time of their ignorance (as they call the period before Mohammed), was, in general, adoration of the stars; varying much, however, in the different tribes, each of whom selected a different constellation as the highest object of worship. -For a thousand years, the Arabians manfully defended the freedom, faith and manners of their fathers against all the attacks of the Eastern conquerors, protected by deserts and seas, as well as by their own arms. Neither the Babylonian and Assyrian, nor the Egyptian and Persian kings, could bring them under their yoke. At last they were overcome by Alexander the Great; but, immediately after his death, they took advantage of the disunion of his generals and successors to recover their independence. At this period, the northern princes of the country were bold enough to extend their dominion beyond the limits of Arabia. The Arabian Nomades, especially in winter, made deep inroads into the fertile Irak or Chaldæa. They finally conquered a portion of it, which is hence still called Irak Araby. Thence the tribe of Hareth advanced into Syria, and settled in the country of Gassan, whence they received the appellation of Gassanides. Three centuries after Alexander, the Romans approached these limits. The divided Arabians could not resist the Roman arms every where successfully; their country, however, was not completely reduced to a province; the northern princes, at least, maintained a virtual independence of the emperors, and were regarded as their governors. The old Homeyrites in Yemen, against whom an unsuccessful war was carried on in the time of Augustus, preserved their liberty. Their chief city, Saba, was destroyed by a flood. With the weakness of the Roman government, the struggle for absolute independence increased, which a union of all the Arabian tribes would have easily gained; but, weakened and scattered as they were, they spent several centuries in this contest, during which the mountainous country of the interior (Nedschid) became the theatre of those chivalrous deeds so often sung by Arabian poets, till a man of extraordinary energy united them by communicating to them his own ardor, and union was followed by augmented force.-Christianity early found many adherents here, and there were even several bishops, who acknowledged as their metropolis Bosro in Palestine, on the borders of Arabia. Yet the original worship of the stars could not be entirely

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abolished. The former opposition of the Arabians to the despotism of Rome drew to them a multitude of heretics, who had been persecuted in the orthodox empire of the East, especially the Monophysites, and the Nestorians, who were scattered through all the East; and the religious enthusiasm of those exiles rekindled the flame of opposition. The Jews, also, after the destruction of Jerusalem, became very numerous in this country, and made proselytes, particularly in Yemen. The last king of the Homeyrites (Hamjarites) was of the Jewish faith, and his persecutions of the Christians, A. D. 502, involved him in a war with the king of Ethiopia, which cost him his life and his throne. To the indifference excited by so great a variety of sects is to be referred the quick success of Mohammed in establishing a new religion. He raised the Arabians to importance in the history of the world, and with him begins a new epoch in the history of this people. (See Moors, and Caliph, Caliphate.)

ARABIAN GULF. (See Red Sea.)

ARABIAN LITerature and Language. Of the first cultivation and literature of this country, we have but few accounts. That poetry early flourished in Arabia, may be inferred from the character of the inhabitants, who are known to be bold, valiant, adventurous, proud, and excessively fond of honor. The tribes who wandered, under the government of their sheiks, through the beautiful region of Arabia the Happy, had every thing favorable to the growth of poetry,—a delightful country, lively feelings and warm fancy. If it were beyond doubt, that the poem of Job was of Arabian origin, this would show, not only that Arabia Petræa had its poets, but also the character of their productions. We find in it bold images, noble metaphors, comparisons and descriptions, mingled with enigmas. The antiquity of philosophy among the Arabians might also be shown from Job,-a poem comprehending, at the same time, physical and astronomical knowledge, which is, however, very imperfect. Even before the time of Mohammed, the genius of the people was very conspicuous, particularly in poetry. In the fairs at Mecca and at Okadh, Å. D. 500, poetical contests were held, and the poems to which the prize was awarded, were written on byssus, in letters of gold, whence they were called Modabahath, (gilt), and hung up in the caaba, at Mecca, therefore called Moallakath, (hung up). The collection of the Moallakath contains 7 poems, by 7

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authors Amralkeis, Tharasah, Zoheir, Lebid, Anthara, Amru Ben Kalthun, and Hareth. They are distinguished by deep feeling, high imagination, richness of imagery and sentiment, national pride and liberal spirit, violent breathings of revenge and love.-The brightest period of the Arabian history commenced with Mohammed, and was soon followed by the golden age of their literature. Mohammed announced himself to the people as a prophet sent from God, and laid down rules of faith and life, which were collected by Abubekr, first caliph after his death, corrected and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute the Koran. (q. v.) By this, the Arabian language of literature was fixed, the first literary direction given to the people, and their national character determined. The Arabians seem to be favorably situated for commerce, but less so for conquest, particularly as a large part of the population consists of tribes wandering through the desert, and living alternately by keeping cattle and by plunder. But Mohammed succeeded in subduing the whole country, gave it a constitution at once religious and military, and inflamed the native valor of the people by an enthusiastic zeal for religion. When he died, A. D. 632, without a male heir, his adherents chose a caliph (successor) in his room, under whom the spirit of conquest first took possession of the Arabians, and urged them onward like a rapid stream. Only 80 years after the death of Mohammed, their power extended from Egypt to the Indies, from Lisbon to Samarcand. During this period, the nation was only animated with warlike enthusiasm, under the dominion of which the tender blossoms of genius seldom thrive. Time, and intercourse with cultivated nations, by degrees overcame their rudeness. With the government of the caliph of the family of the Abassides, A. D.750, began their progress in the arts and sciences. In the splendid court of Al Mansur, at Bagdad, these first found support; but it was Haroun al Raschid, (786-808) who infused into his people an enduring love for them. He invited learned men, from all countries, to his kingdom, and paid them princely 'salaries. He caused the works of the most famous Grecian authors to be translated into Arabic, and spread abroad by numerous copies. Al Mamum, who ruled soon after him, offered the Grecian emperor 10,000 pounds of gold and a perpetual peace, if he would send him the philosopher Leo, for a time, to instruct

him. Under his government, excellent schools were established at Bagdad, Bassora, Bochara, Cufa, and large libraries at Alexandria, Bagdad and Cairo. The caliph Motasem, who died A. D. 841, was of the same disposition, and a high degree of literary rivalry existed between the dynasty of the Abassides in Bagdad, and that of the Ommaiades in Spain. What Bagdad was to Asia, the high school at Cordova was to Europe, where, particularly in the 10th century, the Arabians were the chief pillars of literature. At a time when learning found scarcely any where else a place of rest and encouragement, the Arabians employed themselves in collecting and diffusing it in the three great divisions of the world. Soon after the beginning of the 10th century, students travelled from France, and other European countries, to the Arabian schools in Spain, particularly with the view of learning mathematics and medicine. Besides the academy of Cordova, the Arabians had established 14 others in Spain, without mentioning the higher and the elementary schools. They had 5 public libraries, and Casiri mentions 17 Arabians, in Spain, who undertook scientific journeys. Such rapid advances did this nation make (which, scarcely half a century before, was limited to the Koran, poetry and eloquence) when they had formed an acquaintance with the Greeks. In geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, and especially in arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, their efforts have been crowned with great success, as is proved from the various terms of Arabian origin, still in use; for example, almanac, algebra, alcohol, azimuth, zenith, nadir, and many others. The invention of the common ciphers, also, has been generally ascribed to them; but professor Seyffarth, who has been lately engaged in examining the precious collection of papyri and other Egyptian antiquities in the royal museum of Turin, among other important discoveries, asserts, that the Arabic figures are found among those of the Egyptians, which renders it probable that the Arabians did not invent, but merely borrowed, their ciphers. The Egyptians wrote, as we do, 1, 2, 3, &c. Even their fractions resemble ours, their fractional figures being written above and below a small horizontal line. He has also discovered that they employed the decimal system. Most of the geography in the middle ages is the work of the Arabians. They extended, in Africa and Asia especially, the

320 tronomy they especially cultivated, for which famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. As early as A. D. 812, Alhazen and Sergius had translated into Arabic the Almagest of Ptolemy, the first regular treatise on astronomy, of which, in 833, Alfargani, and, still later, Averroes, published editions. Albaten, in the 10th century, observed the motion of the aphelion. Mohammed Ben Dscheber noticed the obliquity of the ecliptic, and completed a theory of the sun. Almansor formed astronomical tables, in which appear some observations on the obliquity of the ecliptic. Alpetragius wrote a theory of the planets. Geography was brought into connexion with mathematics and astronomy, and treated scientifically, particularly by Abulfeda. The division of the earth into 7 climates, various geographical measures and the like, belong to the Arabians. Much as the severer sciences were cultivated, the genius of the people for poetry was not fettered. Abu Temam, in 830, collected the greater Hamasah, an anthology in 10 books, and Bochteri, in 880, the lesser Hamasah, as a supplement to the other. These contain the 7 prize poems of the Moallakath. After this period, the oriental peculiarities of Arabian poetry became more and more strong, the tone grew mystical and extravagant, and the language lost its purity. Motenabbi deserves to be noticed for his tender elegies in a classic style; (see Proben der Arabischen Dichtkunst, Specimens of Arabic Poetry, by Reiske, Leipsic, 1765; and Motenabbi, translated [into German] completely, for the first time, by Joseph Hammer, Vienna, 1823;) Abu Ismael Tograi, vizier of Bagdad, for his elegies and poems (see New German Mercury, 1800, No. 1. sect. 8); Ithiel Hariri, for his history of a knight errant, entitled Makamat, in 50 chapters (see Rosenműller On an Arabic Romance of Hariri, Leipsic, 1801, translated, 1826, by Rückert); Abu Dschaafar Ibn Tophail, for his interesting philosophical romance, the Natural Man, translated by Eichhorn, Berlin, 1783. Admai's great heroic romance, Antar's Life (see Antar), is still said to produce amusement in the coffee-houses of Aleppo. It is written in 35 parts.The dramatic excepted, there is no sort of poetry which the Arabians have left unattempted. The ballad, a production of the bold and adventurous spirit of the nation, was invented by them. There is no doubt that they had, by this means, a powerful effect on modern European po

etry; for no small share of the romantic poetry of the middle ages belonged to the Arabians. The adventurous, chivalrous spirit, the tales of fairies and sorcerers, and perhaps, also, rhyme, passed from the Arabians to our western poetry. Thus this nation, in the period of the middle ages, contributed, in various ways, to the literature and the refinement of Europe, and left behind many traces of its former superiority. Hence the importance of their language to learned inquirers must appear evident to all. No one can do without it, who would take an accurate view of knowledge and human character. It belongs to the Semitic dialects, so called, among which it is distinguished for its antiquity, richness and softness. By the Koran it was fixed as a written language, and, a short time after Mohammed, and still more since the 10th century, among the Arabian authors, who established the principles of the language, its beauties were explored, and its wealth collected in dictionaries. By the entrance of the Arabians into Sicily and Spain, their dialect became known in Europe. But, notwithstanding it has left many traces in the languages of those countries, the knowledge of it has been mostly lost since the expulsion of the Moors from Europe. Postel again introduced the scientific study of it into France, and Spey into Germany. In the 17th century, it flourished in the Netherlands, and was afterwards zealously pursued in Germany, Holland and England. We have valuable grammars by Erpen, Michaelis, Richardson, Jahn, Rosenmüller, de Sacy; good dictionaries by Erpen, Golius, Giggeji, Castell, Meninski, Wilmet, Scheid; collections of extracts by Reiske, Hirt, Rosenmüller, Jahn, de Sacy, Savary and others. Kirsten, Schultens, Jones, Eichhorn, Tychsen, Schnurrer, Hasse, Kosegarten, Hezel, Wahl, Paulus, Rosenmüller, Vater, Augusti and others have done the world important services, by their great cultivation, investigation and illustration of the language. Gruner and Sprengel have shown how important the knowledge of it is to physicians. In fine, the remains of Arabian architecture, in Spain and Africa, deserve the attention of travellers.

The French architect P. Coste, in 1818, studied this style, particularly in Cairo and Alexandria. Thence arose his work, Architecture Arabe, ou Monuments du Caire, dessinés et mesurés, with 74 engravings, fol., Paris, 1823.

ARABIAN NIGHTS, or the THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS; a celebrated collection