Peloponnesus, extending westward along the bay of Corinth. Early writers, particularly the poets, sometimes include all Greece under the name of Achaia. At the time of the Achæan league, the Romans applied the name of Achaia to all the country beyond the isthmus, which had entered into the league; after the dissolution of which, Greece was divided, by a decree of the Roman senate, into two provinces, viz. that of Macedonia, containing also Thessaly, and that of Achaia, including all the other states of Greece. (See Gibbon's Roman Hist. chap. 1, vol. i.) ACHARD, Frederic Charles, born at Berlin, April 28, 1754, an eminent naturalist and chemist, principally known by his invention, in 1800, of a process for manufacturing sugar from beets, which, since that time, has been brought to greater perfection. He was director of the department of physics, in the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. To enable him to extend his manufacture, the great importance of which was acknowledged by the French Institute (July, 1800), the king of Prussia presented him with an estate at Kunern, in Silesia, where his establishment, at the time of the closing of the ports of Europe, by the decree of Berlin, was attended with such success, that, in the winter of 1811, it daily yielded 300 pounds of sirup. Achard connected with it, in 1812, an institution for the purpose of teaching his mode of manufacture, which attracted the attention of foreigners. He died at Kunern, April 20, 1821. Besides a number of treatises on physics and agriculture, he published several articles on the manufacture of sugar from beets.

ACHATES; the companion of Æneas, and his most faithful friend, celebrated by Virgil.

ACHEEN, ATCHEEN, ACHEM or ACHEN; part of Sumatra, of a triangular form, and containing about 26000 square miles. The lands between its two ranges of mountains are fertile. The Achanese are stouter, taller and darker-colored than the other people of the island, more industrious, have more general knowledge, and deal, as merchants, in a more liberal manner. They are Mahometans; their sailors are expert and bold, and employ a multitude of vessels in trade and fishing. The government is despotic, monarchical, and hereditary; their laws extremely severe. The capital of the kingdom is Acheen, lon. 95° 46′ E., lat. 5° 22′ N.; pop. about 36000. Its chief trade is now with Hindostan, from whence it receives cot

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ton goods in return for gold dust, jewels, sapan wood, betel-nut, pepper, sulphur, camphor and benzoin. Europeans bring there opium, iron, arms, &c. (See Marsden's History of Sumatra.)

ACHELOUS, also ASPROPOTAMUS, a river running between Ætolia and Ácarnania, has its source on mount Pindus, flows through the first settlements of the Grecians around Dodona, and falls into the Ionian sea. The banks of this river are the only places in Europe, which formerly afforded habitation to lions.-Hesiod calls A. the son of Oceanus and Thetis. Others say differently. He wrestled with Hercules for Dejanira, and, when thrown to the ground, assumed the shape of a terrible serpent, then that of an ox, and, after he had lost a horn, he fled, ashamed, to his waters. From the broken horn, it is said, the nymphs made the horn of plenty. He was the father of the sirens.

ACHENWALL, Godfrey, born at Elbing, in Prussia, Oct. 20, 1719, first gave a distinct character to the science of statistics. He studied in Jena, Halle and Leipsic. In 1746, he settled at Marburg, and lectured on history, the law of nature and of nations, and afterwards, also, on statistics. In 1748, he was appointed professor at Göttingen, where he remained until his death, May, 1772. A. travelled through Switzerland, France, Holland and England, and published several books on the history of the European states, the law of nations, political economy, &c. Most of them have gone through several editions. His principal endeavor, in his lectures and historical works, was to distinguish, in the long series of occurrences which are recorded in the annals of nations, every thing which might have contributed to form their character, and fix their political condition. His chief merit consists in the settled character which he has given to, and the new light which he has thrown on the science, which explains systematically the nature and amount of the active powers of a state, and hence deduces the sources of its physical and moral prosperity. He gave it the name of statistics. His most distinguished pupil, who succeeded him at the university of Göttingen, was Schlözer.

ACHERON; the name given by the ancients to a river of the infernal regions, over which Charon conducted the souls of the dead in a boat, for which he received an obolus, placed under the tongue of the deceased. Only the shades of those who had obtained a burial in this

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world, or had, at least, some earth thrown upon their bodies, were carried over the river; others were obliged to wander on its banks a whole century. In ancient geography, there are 5 different rivers, named Acheron. The one in Epirus (now a province of Janina) flows first through the lake Acherusia, then, for a short distance, through the rocks of the Cassiopeian mountains, and falls, near Prevesa, into the Ionian sea. It is now called Velchi. A branch of the Nile, in the neighborhood of Memphis, is also called Acheron, and a lake, Acherusia. Over this the Egyptians ferried their dead, to bury them on an island in the lake, or on the opposite shore; or, if the judge of the dead condemned them, to throw them into the water: hence the Greek fable. The cave of Cerberus, called Acherusis, is found on the banks of the river Acheron, in Bithynia, near Heraclea. There is also a swamp in Campania, between Cuma and the promontory of Mysenum, called by the ancients Acherusia. At present, there are salt works on this spot.

ACHILLEIS; a poem, by Statius, in honor of Achilles. (See Statius.)

ACHERUSIA, in ancient geography,-1. A lake in Egypt, near Memphis, over which, according to Diodorus, the bodies of the dead were conveyed for judgment. The boat was called baris, the boatman, Charon. Hence came the Grecian fable of Charon and the Styx. 2. A river in Calabria. 3. A lake in Epirus, through which runs the river Acheron. 4. A lake between Cuma and the promontory Misenum. 5. A peninsula of Bithynia, on the Euxine, near Heraclea.

ACHILLES; according to the poets, son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and of Thetis, daughter of Nereus, grandson of Eacus. His mother dipped him, when an infant, in the waters of the Styx, which made him invulnerable, except in the heel, by which she held him. It had been foretold to Thetis that A. would acquire immortal glory, but, at the same time, meet an early death, if he went to the siege of Troy; while, on the other hand, if he remained at home, he would enjoy a happy old age. To prevent him from taking part in the war against Troy, Thetis disguised him, when 9 years old, in a female dress, and sent him, under the name of Pyrrha, to the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, with whose daughters he was educated. The prophet Calchas, however, announced to the Grecians that Troy could not be

taken without the aid of A. He was consequently sought for every where, and finally discovered by the crafty Ulysses, who came to the court of Lycomedes disguised as a merchant, and offered to the daughters of the king various female ornaments, among which arms were interspersed. The princesses seized the ornaments, but A. took the arms. It was now an easy task to persuade the fiery and ambitious hero to join the other princes of Greece in the expedition against Troy. Phoenix and the Centaur Chiron had been his instructors. The latter had taught him medicine, music, and riding; the former, more especially his tutor, followed him to Troy, to render him an eloquent speaker, and a brave warrior. A. appears in the Iliad, of which he is the hero, not only as the bravest, but also as the most beautiful, of the Grecians. He sailed to Troy with 50 ships filled with the Myrmidons, Achaians, and Hellenians, and destroyed 12 cities on the islands and 11 on the main land. Juno and Minerva took him under their special protection. On account of a quarrel with Aga.memnon, whom the princes had chosen their leader, he withdrew from the field, and permitted Hector, at the head of the Trojans, to destroy the ranks of the Grecians. He remained implacable against the king, on account of Briseis, daughter of Brises, and wife of Mines, king of Lyrnessus, who had fallen to his share, in the division of the booty, but whom Agamemnon had taken from him, because he was obliged to restore to her father Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, who had fallen to his own share, in order to avert from the Grecians the plague sent by Apollo, in answer to the prayers of the old man, his priest. Neither the defeats of the Grecians, nor the offers of Agamemnon, appeased the wrath of the hero. He, however, permitted his friend Patroclus, in his own armor, and at the head of his own warriors, to mingle again in the combat. Patroclus fell by the arm of Hector; and, to revenge his death, A. resolved to return to the field. Thetis herself brought him new and costly arms, made by Vulcan, among which the shield was particularly beautiful. He became reconciled to Agamemnon, received the presents which were offered, and, refreshed by Minerva with nectar and ambrosia, hastened to the bat tle. The Trojans fled, and a part of them rushed into the river Xanthus and perished. The bodies obstructed the course of the stream, and the river-god, disgust

ed with the carnage, commanded A. to desist. Not being obeyed, he overflowed his banks, and rushed against the hero. Encouraged by Neptune and Minerva, A. opposed Xanthus, who called to his aid the waters of Simois. Juno then sent Vulcan, and the west and south winds, who drove the river-god back to his proper limits. But A. pursued the Trojans to their city, which only the interference of Apollo prevented him from taking. Hector alone remained before the Scean gate, and, having fled 3 times round the city, pursued by A., finally of fered himself for combat. A. slew him, and, after dragging his body round the city, resigned it, for a ransom, to Priam. Here the narration of Homer ends. A., as represented by this sublime poet, is of a fiery and impetuous character, and has little of that firmness and rational valor which constitute the true hero. In this respect, the heroes of the German poem "Das Nibelungenlied" are far greater and nobler than those of Homer. The further history of A. is told as follows: Falling in love with Polyxena, he sought her hand, and obtained it; for which he promised to defend Troy. But Paris slew him with an arrow, which pierced his heel, in the temple of Apollo, where he was celebrating his nuptials. Others say it was Apollo who killed him, or directed the arrow of Paris. A bloody contest ensued about his body. The Greeks sacrificed Polyxena on his tomb, in obedience to his request, that he might enjoy her company in the Elysian fields, where he is also said to have married Medea. When Alexander saw his tomb, it is said that he placed a crown upon it, exclaiming, "that A. was happy in having, during his life-time, a friend like Patroclus, and, after his death, a poet like Homer."

ACHILLES TATIUS; a Greek novelist, or Erotic writer, so called, born at Alexandria, lived, probably, at the end of the 3d and the beginning of the 4th century, and taught rhetoric in his native city. In his old age, he became a convert to Christianity, and rose to the dignity of a bishop. Besides a treatise on the sphere, which we know only from an abridgment still extant, we possess a romance of his, in 8 books, styled, The Loves of Clitophon and Leucippe, which, as regards the subject and composition, is not without merit, and in some parts shows much ability. The language, though rich in rhetorical ornaments, is not free from sophistical subtilty. The charge of obscenity, which

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has occasionally been brought against the work, is very properly met by a Greek epigram, which remarks, that the scope of the work is to be considered, namely, to teach temperance, to show the punishment of unrestrained passions, and the reward of chastity. The best editions are the following; that published at Leyden, 1640, one published at Leipsic, by Bode, with the notes of Salmasius, 1776, and that of Mitscherlich, 1792, (Bipont.)

ACHMET III, a Turkish emperor, son of Mahomet IV, reigned from 1703 to 1730. Many remarkable events took place during his reign, of which we shall here only mention, that Charles XII, after the battle at Poltawa, found protection at his court. Charles succeeded in involving A. in a war with the czar Peter the Great, which would have had a very unfortunate issue for him, if the prudence of Catharine, his mistress, whom he afterwards married, had not averted the impending danger. (See Peter I.) A. established the first printing press at Constantinople, in 1727. Towards the end of his reign, the janizaries revolted against him, and he was thrown into the same prison in which his successor, Mahomet V, had been confined, before he took A.'s place on the throne. He died in 1736.

ACHMIM, or ECHMIM; a considerable town of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile, called by the ancients Chemnis and Panopolis, by the Copts Smin. Though reduced from its former magnificence, it is still one of the finest towns of Upper Egypt. It has some manufactories. Abulfeda speaks of a superb temple here.

The immense stones which composed it, sculptured with innumerable hieroglyphics, are now scattered about, and some are transferred into a mosque. A. contains also a triumphal arch, built by the emperor Nero. This place is famous also for the worship of the serpent Haridi.

ACHROMATIC Telescopes. (See Optics.) ACIDS (acida); a class of compound bodies, which have the following characteristic properties: the greater part of them, a sour taste, and most of them are very corrosive; they change the vegetable blues to red, are soluble in water, and have great affinity for the alkaline, earthy, and metallic oxyds, with which they form neutral salts. Some acids have no sour taste, but their affinity for the three classes of bodies above-mentioned is always characteristic. If a few drops of sulphuric acid, nitric acid, or muriatic acid, be added to a solution of blue litmus,

it becomes red. The same is the case if they be added to other vegetable colors, as violet, &c. Hence these colors are employed as tests of acids, that is, to ascertain when they exist in any substance. We may add the infusion to the fluid in which we are trying to detect an acid, but a more convenient method is, to spread it on paper, and allow it to dry. If a strip of this be put into a fluid in which there is an acid, it instantly becomes red. Some acids appear only in a fluid state, either gaseous, as carbonic acid, or liquid, as sulphuric acid; others appear in a solid form, or crystallized, as benzoic acid, boracic acid, &c. All acids are compound bodies, and are sometimes divided into four classes, the three first of which are compounded with oxygen; the fourth class consists of those which, at least according to some modern chemists, have no oxygen; e. g. sulphuretted hydrogen. The first class consists of acids compounded with oxygen and one other body; the second class comprises the acids compounded of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; the third class consists of those acids which contain nitrogen, in addition to the three substances abovementioned. The ancient chemists were acquainted with but few of the acids now known; they divided them, according to the kingdoms of nature, into mineral, vegetable and animal acids. This division, however, cannot now be retained, as there are some acids which appear in all the kingdoms; e. g. phosphoric acid. If the same radical be compounded with different proportions of the acidifying principle, forming different acids, the most powerful acid receives a name from the radical, terminating in ic; the weaker, a name formed in the same manner in ous; e. g. sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid, nitrous and nitric acid; and, where there are intermediate compounds, the term hypo is occasionally added to the compound next above it in point of acidity. Thus hyposulphuric acid signifies an intermediate acid between sulphurous and sulphuric acids; hypophosphorous acid, an acid containing less oxygen than the phosphorous acid. (For Prussic acid, Pyroligneous acid, &c. see Prussic, Pyroligneous, &c.)

ACIRS; hurricanes of snow which prevail among the Cevennes, in the south of France. Villages are sometimes so rapidly covered, that the inhabitants have no means of communication, but by cutting passages under the snow.

ACKERMANN, Rudolph, was born in

1764, at Schneeberg, in Saxony, where his father was a saddler. He received his education at the Latin school of his native city, and, after learning the trade of his father, travelled through the country as a journeyman, according to the custom of Germany. After residing for some time at Paris and Brussels, he went to London. He there became acquainted with Facius, a German, who had undertaken to conduct a journal of fashions, (Journal des Modes,) and met with tolerable success. A. soon afterwards published, in the same way, drawings of coaches and curricles, invented, drawn and painted by himself. The novelty and elegance of the forms excited universal attention, and he received orders for drawings from all quarters. This laid the foundation of a trade in works of art, which his activity, attention and precision in business so much enlarged in a short time, that he was enabled to marry an English woman, became a citizen of London, and founded an establishment called Repository of Arts, in the Strand, in the centre of London. It is one of the curiosities of the British capital, and gives employment to several hundred men. An account of every thing new has appeared for 8 years in A.'s splendid journal, Repository of Arts, Literature and Fashion, the first series of which, in 14 volumes, costs £18; and the new series already amounts to more than 40 numbers. Every number contains three or four elegant, colored copperplates. For 8 years he has also been engaged in a series of topographical works, exhibiting all the splendor of British aquatinta, which already constitute a small library, and, for truth of design and elegance of execution, are hardly surpassed by any similar undertaking in any country. He now has the most instructive books of the English and other languages translated into Spanish, (principally by the well-known Blanco White,) and sends them to America, where his eldest son is engaged, in Mexico, in extensive dealings in books and works of art. For some years he has also published the first souvenir in England, called the Forget me not. When the association was formed, in 1813, for the relief of those who had been plunged into misery by the war in Germany, A. showed himself an active philanthropist. A. is now the best lithographer in London. He employs in the summer 600 men, every day, in and around London.

ACOLYTHI, or ACOLYTES; servants of the church, who appeared in the Latin