that committee in the senate, ridiculously called commission de la liberté individuelle, while it daily submitted, with blind subservience, to the imperial orders. In 1814, Abrial voted for the overthrow of the imperial dynasty. Louis XVIII. made him a peer, and since that time he has voted with some independence in the chamber of peers.

ples; or on the one which runs along the Adriatic, from Ancona, by way of Atri, Pescara, etc. into the interior. On the latter road, each of the many parallel rivers forms an excellent position, where the right wing may always be protected by the sea, the left by the contiguous mountains, from which the flank of the assailants is itself exposed to attack. To force these positions would cost a bold enemy much blood. It would be yet more dangerous to attempt to pass Terracina, on the other road, without having possession of A.; for as soon as the army had arrived at Terracina, the rear might be attacked on the left from Rome and the mountains. Finally, should the invaders advance by both roads at once, all communication would be destroyed before they reached Pescara, whence a good road leads over the chain to Sulmona and Teano. They would meet with all the above difficulties, and, at the same time, incur the danger of being defeated in detail. The possession of A. is, therefore, indispensable for the attack of Naples; to force it, however, would be very difficult. As has been said above, of the roads from the states of the church into this province, only the one from Rieti, through Cività ducale to Aquila and Sulmona, is practicable for artillery, and only two others for regular troops, and that with difficulty. All the other ways are nothing more than paths through morasses, where the troops must march in single files, and the cavalry lead their horses. The road from Rieti is, therefore, the only one on which a serious attack can be undertaken; but the strong pass of Antrodocco, and numerous good positions, facilitate its defence. Besides, the thick forests with deep ravines afford advantages for a partisan warfare, in the manner of the guerillas, or the Tyrolese and, had the Neapolitans a warlike spirit, the possession of A., whenever attacked, would not have been obtained without a great sacrifice. But when a people is destitute of courage and energy, when the soldiers, sunk in cowardly apathy, run away at the mere idea of a battle, the most favorable ground will be of no advantage. This is the reason that A., so well adapted for a defensive war, has always been of little use; that Naples has been the prey, sometimes of the Austrians, at other times of the French or the Spaniards; and that the inhabitants have but seldom resisted the conquerors. Once only, in 1798, did the natives of A. rouse themselves against the victorious French

ABRUZZO, the northern extremity of the kingdom of Naples, is bounded on the north and west by the states of the church, on the east by the Adriatic, on the south by Puglia and Terra di Lavoro. It contains 628,600 inhabitants, and is divided into A. ulterior, which comprises the north-western, and A. citerior, which comprises the south-eastern part. The highest part of the chain of the Apennines crosses this mountainous country. In A. ulterior, especially, it is very lofty, with steep cliffs, and throws extraordinary obstacles in the way of internal communication. The rivers which rise in A., the Trento, Trontino, etc., generally flow in a direct course into the Adriatic sea, and have (the Pescara and Sangro excepted) the character of torrents. They are often suddenly swollen by the rains, especially in the spring, and then sweep away the bridges and all means of communication. The climate of A. is severe. The summits of the mountains are covered with snow from October to April. Thick woods crown the eminences; the valleys only are productive; and even they (as the inhabitants are mostly shepherds) afford but a very scanty supply of grain. Almond, walnut, and other fruit-trees thrive every where; olives, in the lower regions, near the sea. The finest herds of all kinds of cattle feed on the heights and in the valleys, and constitute the only article of export. The most important cities are Aquila, Pescara, (both fortresses,) and Sulmona. The importance of A. consists, principally, in its military sites. Projecting like a bastion 60 geographical miles, far into the territory of the church, it becomes especially important from the circumstance that but one military road, and that an extremely difficult one to an army, leads into the kingdom. There is, indeed, no one like it across the mountains, from the shore of the Mediterranean to that of the Adriatic sea. The kingdom of Naples, therefore, if well defended, is exposed to serious attacks on two roads only; namely, on that which stretches along the Mediterranean sea and the Pontine marshes, from Rome, by Terracina and Capua, to Na

they killed their general, Hilarion-Point, took general Rusca prisoner, and did important injury to the conquerors, especially to the column of general Duhesme. But as the Neapolitan army had been defeated in the states of the church, and fled in the most cowardly manner wherever the French showed themselves, these momentary ebullitions of courage were of little avail to the descendants of the bold Samnites, Marsi and Sabini, who once dwelt on these mountains, a terror to the Romans; and the subsequent petty commotions, in 1806, partook too much of the character of common robberies to merit commendation. In 1815, when Murat advanced against the Austrians, the government was too much hated to be able to organize a popular war after the battle of Tolentino. Instead of resisting, the soldiers born in A. dispersed to their homes, when they marched through this province on their return, and the rivers on the eastern coast rather hindered the retreat of the Neapolitans than the advances of the foe, who proceeded without opposition, both by the roads along the coast and over the mountains, with columns composed of light troops, and by this daring step effected the entire dissolution of the Neapolitan army. In 1821, the revolutionary party at Naples hoped that A. would afford the greatest advantages in a defensive war; and the Venditas of the Carbonari, the popular assemblies, and even the French chamber of deputies, again resounded with praises of the ground and of the spirit which inspired the inhabitants, the worthy descendants of their daring ancestors. The result completely disappointed expectation. After the plan of the Austrians to attack A. on the road from Cività ducale to Aquila and Sulmona was determined on, general Pepe resolved to commence the offensive. On March 7th, 1821, he crossed the boundary of Cività ducale, and attacked general Geppert, at Rieti. His troops advanced with reluctance, found themselves surrounded by two battalions of Austrians, and determined to retreat. The Austrians quickly pursued; the division under Wallmoden reached the strong pass of Antrodocco on the 9th, attacked and soon obtained possession of it, another division having already taken the pass of Borghette without resistance, while one portion of the Neapolitans fled from dissatisfaction with the new government, and another from cowardice. The whole Neapolitan army being dispersed, the militia and volun

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teers returned home; the troops of the line, weakened by desertion, withdrew into the interior of the country; and Pepe himself left the army in anger at their cowardice. Aquila opened its gates on the 11th; the citadel then capitulated, and the inhabitants of Abruzzo furnished the Austrians with provisions, without evincing any desire to prolong this partisan war. By the speedy advance of the Austrians to Sulmona, general Carascosa, who held possession of the road of Terracina, and also the corps which protected the road along the coast of the Adriatic, were surrounded, and both the regulars and militia, having dispersed, hastened back. Thus ended a war, which affords another proof, that even the pass of Thermopyla has no value unless defended by Spartans. The inhabitants of this mountainous region are generally banditti, who render the frontiers of Naples and of the territories of the church extremely insecure. These banditti consist of the peasants living in the mountains, who possess property and families, but, in addition to their agricultural concerns, make a trade of robbery. Urged by rapacity and poverty to murder and plunder, they unite and fall upon the traveller, and not unfrequently upon the inhabitants and houses of the plains.

ABSALOM, (in Danish, Axel,) bishop of Roeskilde or Rothschild, and archbishop of Denmark from 1158 to 1201; renowned as a clergyman, statesman, general, and navigator; descended from a family of high rank, and, even from his early youth, a friend and counsellor of king Waldemar I., whose ability in peace and war procured him the surname of the Great. A. had a large share in the administration of Waldemar I. He was active, humane, and learned; set an example of industry to the monks, and improved the condition of the church in Denmark. In his youth, he studied at Paris. Under his direction Saxo wrote the valuable Danish chronicle. A. never abused his power or the favor of the king; so that Waldemar ever remained his friend. He had the honor of being the founder of the chief city of Denmark,Copenhagen. He built the castle, called, after him, Arelburg, and the city, Axelstadt. This castle, enlarged and improved, served the kings of Denmark afterwards for their residence, till the 18th century. A. died, A. D. 1201, in the 73d year of his age. His grave is still seen in Soroe, then a convent in Zealand.

ABSENTEE; a word in modern times particularly applied to those land-owners

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and churchmen of Ireland who reside in England, or in foreign countries. In 1715, a tax of 4 shillings in the pound was levied on all profits, fees, pensions, &c., derived from Ireland, in all cases where the persons receiving them should not reside in that country for six months in the year; power to grant leave of absence being reserved to the crown. In 1753, the tax ceased.

ABSOLUTION. In the ancient Christian church, absolution was a judicial act, by which the priest, in the name of the community, invoking the favor of God, announced to the penitent his remission from ecclesiastical punishment, and readmission into the bosom of the church. Private absolution having become prevalent for four centuries, through priests acting in the place of the bishop, the opinion was spread among the people, that they had the power of absolving, by their own authority, and without the consent of the church. But down to the 12th century, they used only the formula, "may God or Christ absolve thee;" which is still the form in the Greek church, and, in the Romish, makes a part of the ceremony. The council of Trent, sess. xiv. cap. 3., declares the essence of the sacrament of penance to lie in the words of absolution. Among Protestants, absolution is chiefly used for a sentence, by which a person, who stands excommunicated, is released from that punishment. The formula of absolution in the Romish church has been said to be absolute, in the Greek church, deprecatory, and in the Protestant churches, declarative; but this is a matter strongly contested between Protestants and Romanists. The fathers of the church and the best modern theologians are unanimous in the belief, that God alone can forgive and deliver from sin; that a judicial power over the souls of Christians is conferred neither on priests nor teachers.

ABSTRACTION; an operation of the mind, by which we detach from our conceptions all those circumstances that render them particular, and thereby fit them to denote a whole rank or class of beings.

ABULFEDA; known by the name of Ismael, prince of Hamah, in Syria, surnamed the victorious king, and the pillar of religion. This Arabian, famous as a historian and geographer, was born at Damascus, in the year of the Hegira 672, A. D. 1273. He sprung from the family of the Ayubites, which had already given birth to the famous Saladin, and was re

nowned for the valor of its members. While a youth, he distinguished himself in various campaigns. From his uncle he inherited the principality of Hamah; but, on account of quarrel with his brother, he did not come into possession of it for several years; after which he remained undisturbed therein till his death, in the year of the Hegira 732, A. D. 1333. All writers who mention him represent him as a prince of the greatest talents, equally remarkable for courage and coolness in war, and for wisdom in council. Amid the cares of government, he devoted himself with zeal to study, drew the learned around him, and rendered his power and wealth subservient to the cause of science. He was well acquainted with history, jurisprudence, medicine, botany, mathematics and astronomy, and has bequeathed to us the fruits of his long inquiries in several valuable works, of which his history of the human race, and his geography, entitled, The true Situation of Countries, are the most famous. We have several partial translations and editions of them, viz. of the historical works, 1. Annales Moslemici Arab. et Lat. Op. et Stud. Reiskii, 1789-94,5 vols. 2. De Vita et Rebus gestis Mohammedis, ed. Gagnier, 1723, to which Schultens has annexed an appendix. For portions of his geography, we are indebted to Grævius, Reiske, Muratori, Michaelis, Rink, Eichhorn, Rosenmüller, Paulus and Rommel. Abulfeda's own manuscript is at Paris. He is a trustworthy author, and his style is good.

ABYDOS; an ancient city of Asia, on the eastern side of the Dardanelles, famous for the bridge of boats, which Xerxes is related to have thrown here across the Hellespont, and for the loves of Hero and Leander. This city defended itself with great courage against Philip of Macedon. Another Abydos was an ancient town of Upper Egypt, which contained the palace of Memnon, and the celebrated temple of Osiris, built by Osymandes. Under Augustus, the town was reduced to ruins, but to the west of it, in the present village of El-Berbi, magnificent ruins are still found.

ABYLA; a mountain in Africa, one of the pillars of Hercules, as they were anciently called; being directly opposite to Calpe, (now Gibraltar,) in Spain, from which it is distant only 18 miles. Between these mountains are the straits of Gibraltar.

ABYSSINIA; an extensive kingdom of Africa, bounded on the east by the Red sea, on the north by Sennaar, on the west

and south partly by Sennaar and Kordofan, and partly by vast and barbarous regions, of which the names have scarcely reached us. Pinkerton makes Abyssinia 770 miles in length, and 550 in breadth. The number of inhabitants is from 4 to 5 millions, the greater part of whom are of Arabian extraction, mixed with Jews, Turks and Negroes. The ancients called this country, and some of the parts adjacent, in a peculiar sense, Ethiopia. They also gave the same name, indefinitely, to the interior of Africa, and even to a great part of Asia. The Ethiopian kingdoms, of which the ancients had any distinct knowledge, were two. The first, and the only one known to the earliest writers, is Meroe, or the Peninsula, which they supposed to be an island, formed by the successive union of the Nile with the Astaboras and the Astapus, (Blue River and Tacazze.) The chief city of Meroe was placed by them on the Nile, in lat. 16' 26'; and Bruce saw near Chendi, in Sennaar, immense ruins, which probably belonged to this ancient capital. The other kingdom was not known until the Greeks, under the successors of Alexander, had extended their navigation along the eastern coast of Africa. It was that of the Axumitæ, situated upon the Red sea, and occupying part of the Abyssinian province of Tigré. The capital, Axum, still remains, though in a state of decay. Its port, Adulis, was the channel by which the finest ivory then known was exported, and a commercial intercourse maintained with the coasts both of the Red sea and the Indian ocean.-The Abyssinians boast that their country was the Sheba of Scripture, and that it was converted to Judaism several centuries before the Christian era. It is much more certain, that, prior to the middle of the fourth century, the nation was converted to Christianity, which it has ever since professed. This is, however, more tinctured with Judaism than among other nations. Boys and girls are circumcised; the Mosaic laws in regard to clean and unclean meats are respected; the seventh day is their Sabbath, and their altars have the form of the ark of the covenant. In their dogmas they follow the Monophysitic doctrine. (See Monophysites.) In the church service they use the Bible, with the apocryphal books, in the Tigré or Gheez language, which is their language of literature. Baptism and the eucharist are administered according to the ritual of the Greek church, of which they have all the festivals and fasts. It

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is, however, peculiar to the Abyssinians, that persons of rank receive larger pieces of bread at the Lord's supper, and that no one is admitted to it before his 25th year, because they pretend that no one is accountable for sin before that age, and that all who die prior to it are sure of salvation. They consider the bodies of the dead as unclean, and hasten their interment. Their small, round, conical churches stand on hills, near running water, surrounded by cedars, and are full of pictures. During the service every body is obliged to stand, as in the Greek churches. The shoes are left at the door, and passing horsemen must dismount. The service, like that of the Greek church, consists in reading parts of the Bible and praying. The clergy, who are very ignorant, generally marry, and are distinguished by a cross, which they offer to passengers to be kissed. The head of the Abyssinian church is called Abuna, (our father,) and is generally taken from the Coptic priests, as the Abyssinians and the Copts keep up a communication with each other in Cairo. Under the abuna are the kamosats, or the chief priests of the secular clergy, the learned theologians and monks. The latter pretend to be of the order of St. Augustine, and are divided into two classes. The members of one, living unmarried, reside in wealthy convents; those of the others, with their wives and children, live around the churches, supported by agriculture. Both sorts, as well as the numerous nuns, travel about the country, trade in the markets, and do not appear scrupulously observant of their vow of chastity. The Abyssinian clergy have neither a particular dress nor peculiar privileges. A. is now divided into three separate states, Tigré, Amhara, and Efat. The negus, or nagush, as the king of all A. was called before its division, lives at Gondar, in Amhara, enjoying only a nominal sovereignty, and watched by the chief of that state. The pope has several times attempted to gain over A. An opportunity of reducing the Abyssinians to the Roman church was offered by their war with the Turks, in which the regent Helena sought assistance for David II., the minor negus, from the Portuguese, in 1516. In 1520, a Portuguese fleet, with soldiers and priests, arrived in A., and after the Turks and Gallas (a warlike, mountain people, in the south and west of A.) had been repulsed, by the assistance of the Portuguese, towards the end of the 16th century, the zealous Catholics obtained a footing, of

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which the pope knew how to take advantage. He sent Jesuits to convert the inhabitants to the Roman Catholic religion, and a Portuguese colony supported their enterprise. In the beginning of the 17th century, the Roman Catholic ritual was introduced; the Jesuit Alphonso Mendez was elected patriarch of A., in 1626, the celebration of the 7th day as the Sabbath abolished, and the whole religious system accommodated to the Catholic model. But this favorable turn of affairs was of short duration. The negus Basilidas began his administration in 1632, by yielding to the wishes of the majority of the people, who were opposed to the Roman Catholic faith. He banished the monks with the patriarch, and ordered the Jesuits who remained to be hanged. Almost all the Catholic missionaries have since suffered death, and all the attempts of the Roman propaganda to establish the Catholic faith in A., until the end of the last century, have proved fruitless.-In the western part of this country, an independent government of Jews has long existed. They call themselves Falashas, that is, exiles; the state is called Falasjan. They have their own government, which is allowed by the negus, on consideration of their paying a certain tribute. Bruce found there a Jewish king, Gideon, and a queen, Judith.-The customs of the Abyssinians are described by Bruce and Salt as exceedingly savage. They eat the raw and still quivering flesh of cattle, whose roaring is to be heard at their feasts. A perpetual state of civil war seems the main cause of their peculiar brutality and barbarism. Dead bodies are seen lying in the streets, and serve as food to dogs and hyenas. Marriage is there a very slight connexion, formed and dissolved at pleasure; conjugal fidelity is but little regarded. The rulers are unlimited despots in ecclesiastical and civil affairs, disposing of the lives of their subjects at pleasure.-A. is full of high ranges of mountains, in which the Nile takes its rise. The climate, on the whole, is fine, and the soil exceedingly fertile. The vegetable and animal kingdoms are very rich, and afford many species peculiar to this country. One of the most important natural productions of A. is salt, covering a great plain, which occupies part of the tract between Amphila and Massuah. The plain of salt is about four days' journey across. For about half a mile the salt is soft, but afterwards becomes hard, like snow which has been partially thawed, and consolidated. It is

perfectly pure: it is cut with an adze, and carried off by caravans. The country is rich in gold, iron, grain and fruits. Commerce is in the hands of the Jews, Armenians and Turks.

ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean-tree; in the Linnæan system, a species of mimosa. The flowers of this plant are used, by the Chinese, to produce that yellow color, which we see in their silks and stuffs. They make a decoction of the dried flowers, and add alum and calcined oyster-shells. In the materia medica, acacia is the inspissated juice of the unripe pods of the mimosa nilotica of Linnæus.

ACADEMY; an association of scholars or artists, for the promotion of the sciences or arts, sometimes established by government, sometimes voluntary unions of private individuals. The academies at Paris, Stockholm and Berlin, are in part institutions for the purpose of instruction; but at first their only object was the one above-mentioned. The members of an academy either select their own branches of study, or pursue those which the government assigns to them. The results of their labors are read in the regular meetings, and printed among their proceedings. The name is derived from the Athenian academy, belonging to a certain Academus, a famous school for gymnastic exercises, and the place where Plato taught. The appellation academy is also used to denote the various philosophical sects, whose doctrines were taught in that institution. In this sense we speak of the first, second and third academies; the founders of which were Plato, Arcesilaus and Lacydas or Carneades. The first institution of antiquity, which merits the name of academy, in the modern sense of the term, was at Alexandria. Attracted by the generosity of the Ptolemies, a numerous association of scholars was collected here, who were to have labored for the extension and perfection of human knowledge, but soon fell into idleness, or the exercise of grammatical subtleties. From Alexandria the Jews borrowed the custom of founding academies, which were established, after the close of the first century, in the cities on the Euphrates, Sora, Neharda and Punebedita. From them the Nestorians learned, in the sixth century, to value science, and imparted the same spirit to the Arabs, whose excellent caliphs, Almansor, Harun al Raschid and Almamun, founded a number of academies, which were extended from Cordova to Bochara in the farthest east, with the greatest suc