Roman castle stood, the kings of the Franks built a royal castle, in German Pfalz. This was destroyed, A. D. 882, by the Normans, restored by the emperor Otho III, 993, and used in the 14th century as the town-house. This building contains many relics of old German art, the hall where the emperors were crowned, the bust of Napoleon and his first empress painted by David, a tower of Roman origin, &c. The minster was erected between the years 796 and 804, by the emperor Charlemagne, and was ornamented with great splendor. In the middle rises the monument of Charlemagne, with the simple inscription, Carolo Magno. Above it hangs, suspended by a chain, a colossal crown of silver and gilt copper, a donation of Frederic I, which serves as a chandelier for 48 candles. Here is to be seen the chair of white marble, on which several emperors have sat at the time of their coronation. It was formerly overlaid with gold. The church of the Franciscans is distinguished by a beautiful picture of Rubens, the Descent from the Cross, which was carried to Paris, but has been brought back. The inhabitants are for the most part Catholics, many of whom are actively engaged in manufactures. The cloths of A. are famous on the continent of Europe. A manufacture of needles, established about the middle of the 16th century, by Gauthier Wolmar, formerly employed more than 15,000 workmen, but in the year 1808 only 8000. A. contains 15 charitable institutions; it has 7 mineral springs, 6 of them warm. The most famous is the imperial spring, the vapor of which, if confined, deposites sulphur. The rooms for bathing are excellent, with baths from 4 to 5 feet deep, in massive stone, after the old Roman fashion; the greater part have bed-chambers with chimneys. At a distance of 500 paces from A. lies the village of Burtscheid, which also contains hot springs. The upper springs are in the village itself, the lower in the valley, in the open air. The water is useful for washing and dyeing cloths. The upper springs contain no hepatic gas, and deposit no sulphur; in this respect they differ from the lower, and those of A. There are also in Burtscheid manufactures of broadcloth, cassimere and needles. The coalmines and pyrites in the surrounding country account for the hot-wells of A. and B. The names of several streets, Alexander, Francis, Wellington street, remind us of the congress of A. in 1818.

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(See the article A. Congress at.) The history and description of A. with B. and Spa, by Aloys Schreiber, Heidelberg, 1824, is the best guide-book for travellers on the Rhine.

AIX LA CHAPELLE, congress at. In modern politics, the congress at A. in Oct. and Nov. 1818, is of high importance. The principal measures determined on at this meeting of the great powers which had conquered Napoleon were the following: 1. The army of the allies, consisting of 150,000 English, Russian, Austrian, Prussian and other troops, which, since the second peace at Paris, had remained in France, to watch over its tranquillity, was withdrawn, after France had paid the contribution imposed at the peace of 1815. The king of France was then admitted into the holy alliance. Thus the congress of A. restored independence to France. 2. The 5 allies, the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the kings of Great Britain, France and Prussia, issued at this time the famous declaration of Nov. 15, 1818, a document of very dangerous tendency, too indefinite to settle any of the important political questions then pending, but full of the personal views and feelings of the monarchs, and the legitimate offspring of the holy alliance concluded Sept. 26, 1815, at Paris. The friends of absolute government in Europe, who confound the idea of the reigning family with that of the state and the government, admired the paternal professions of the sovereigns in this instrument, which is principally of a religious character; but sagacious politicians and the friends of justice foresaw all the evils which it afterwards produced. Its vagueness admitted of a great latitude of construction, and it was soon followed by a breach of the law of nations in the invasion of Italy and Spain under the newly-declared droit d' intervention armée, promulgated at Laybach, a direct consequence of the doctrines advanced at A. The holy alliance, with all the declarations of the succeeding congresses at Troppau, Laybach and Verona, affords the first instance of an avowedly personal alliance between many monarchs to maintain certain principles of government, and attack every nation within their reach which adopts a different political creed. After the termination of the struggle against Napoleon, in which princes and people were firmly united, the former anxiously separated their interests from those of the latter, and at the congress at A. they openly manifested the designs

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which every succeeding congress has developed more clearly. (See Holy Alliance.) The king of France, at this congress, became a member of the holy alliance only in his personal character, not as the constitutional chief of the French government, following the example of the present king of England, then prince regent. In fact, the accession of these two sovereigns was only to avoid appearing directly opposed to the alliance. 3. From the congress of A. are to be dated all the decisive measures of the German governments against the liberal spirit which had spread among their subjects since the wars with Napoleon. In A. it was first seen how unwilling the king of Prussia was to fulfil his promises of liberal institutions, and how anxiously Austria desired to suppress whatever tended to give force to public opinion, to secure the rights of the people, or promote the cause of representative government. At A. Mr. Stourdza, a Russian subject, published his influential work, Mémoire sur l'État actuel de l'Allemagne. The congress at Carlsbad (q. v.) was an immediate consequence of the congress at A. It had reference, however, only to Germany. History will point out the period of these congresses as the æra of violent political bigotry, corresponding to the former ages of religious bigotry in its principles as in its measures. (See M. de Pradt's L'Europe après le Congrès d'Aix la Chapelle, 8vo. Paris, 1819, and Mr. Scholl's Histoire des Traités de Paix, with his Archives politiques, 1818-19.) For the congress at A. in 1748, see the following article.

AIX LA CHAPELLE, treaties of peace concluded at. The first, May 2d, 1668, put an end to the war carried on against Spain by Louis XIV, in 1667, after the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV, in support of his claims to a great part of the Spanish Netherlands, which he urged in the name of his queen, the infanta Maria Theresa, pleading the jus devolutionis, prevailing among private persons in Brabant and Namur. Condé had already conquered Franche-Comté, and Turenne had taken 10 fortresses, when the triple alliance, concluded by de Witt and sir William Temple (see Witt and Temple), determined France to make peace with Spain, on conditions which were agreed upon at St. Germain with the allies, and ratified at A. Spain had the option to surrender either the FrancheComté or the fortified places in the Netherlands. She chose to give up the latter.

Thus France obtained a part of the ancient Burgundy, the Spanish fortresses Lille, Charleroi, Binch, Douai, Tournai, Oudenarde, and six others, together with their appendages. (See Schöll, Hist. des Traités, &c. i. 331.) The second peace of A., Oct. 18, 1748, terminated the Austrian war of succession (see Austria), in which the parties were at first Louis XV of France and the empress Maria Theresa, and, in the sequel, Spain on one side, and Great Britain, Maria Theresa and Charles Emanuel, king of Sardinia, on the other. In this war, the United Netherlands were engaged as allies of Great Britain and Austria, Modena and Genoa as allies of Spain. Maria Theresa surrendered to Philip, infant of Spain, Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla. Thus the fourth sovereign line of the house of Bourbon, that of Parma, (since 1817 established in Lucca), took its origin. On the whole, the state of possession before the war was restored, the pragmatic sanction and the succession of the house of Hanover in Great Britain guarantied, and Silesia and Glatz secured to the king of Prussia. A Russian auxiliary army of 37,000 men, under prince Repnin, in the pay of the naval powers, approaching, in the spring of 1748, from Bohemia to the Rhine, accelerated the conclusion of the peace. The plenipotentiaries of France, Great Britain and the States General, in a secret session, April 30, 1748, signed the preliminaries, four copies of which were presented to the other powers engaged in the war, and signed by them separately. Charles Stuart, the eldest son of the pretender, protested, at Paris, July 16, against the exclusion of his father, who called himself James III, from the British throne. The above-named three powers first signed, in like manner, the definitive peace, whereupon Spain, Genoa and Modena, July 20, and Austria, July 23 (by her plenipotentiary, count, afterwards prince Kaunitz), did the same. (See Schöll. i. 411, et seq.)

It

AJACCIO, or AJAZZO, the capital of Corsica, contains 6570 inhabitants. has a harbor, protected by a citadel, lying to the north of the gulf of the same name, on the western coast of the island, at the confluence of the rivers Terignano and Restonico. The entrance into the harbor is rendered unsafe by projecting rocks. A. is the birth-place of Napoleon, his brothers and sisters. It is the handsomest city of Corsica, and the seat of a bishop. In the commercial world, it is famous for its coral and anchovy fishe

ries; less so, in the learned world, for its academy. Lon. 8° 44′ E.; lat. 41° 59′ N. AJALON; a town rendered memorable by Joshua's victory over the five Canaanitish kings, and still more so by the extraordinary circumstance of the miraculously lengthened day.

AJAN; a coast and country of Africa, which has the river Quilmanci on the south, the mountains from which that river springs on the west, Abyssinia and the straits of Babelmandel on the north, and the Indian ocean on the east. The coast abounds with all the necessaries of life, and has plenty of very good horses.

AJASSALUCK; the Turkish name for a village on or near the site of the ancient Ephesus. The whole place seems to have been built from the ruins of Ephesian grandeur. Tamerlane encamped here, after having subdued Smyrna, in 1402.

AJAX (Greek, Alas). Among the Grecian chiefs who fought against Troy were Ajax Oileus and Ajax Telamonius. The former, the son of Oileus and Etiopis, a Locrian, was called the less. He accompanied the expedition to Troy, because he had been one of the suitors of Helen. In the combat, his courage sometimes degenerated into inconsiderate fury. Examples of this are given by the poets who succeeded Homer. When the Greeks, they say, had entered Troy, Cassandra fled to the temple of Pallas, from whence she was forced, and dragged along, bound as a captive. Some accounts add, that she caught hold of the statue of the goddess, and that A. dragged her away by the hair; others, that he violated the prophetess in the temple of the goddess. Ulysses accused him of this crime, when he exculpated himself with an oath. But the anger of the goddess at last overtook him, and he perished in the waves of the sea. The other A. was the son of Telamon, from Salamis, and a grandson of Eacus. He, also, was a suitor of Helen, and sailed with 12 ships to Troy, where he is represented by Homer as the boldest and handsomest of the Greeks, after Achilles. He understood, not how to speak, but how to act. He was frank, and full of noble pride. After the death of Achilles, when his arms, which Ajax claimed on account of his courage and relationship, were awarded to Ulysses, he was filled with rage, and, driven by despair, threw himself on his sword.

AKBAH; a celebrated Saracen conqueror in the first century of the Hegira, who

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overran Africa from Cairo to the Atlantic ocean. A general revolt among the Greeks and Africans recalled him from the west, and occasioned his destruction. He founded Cairoan, in the interior of Africa, to check the barbarians and secure a place of refuge to the families of the Saracens.

AKBAR, OF AKBER, Mohammed, sovereign of India; the greatest Asiatic prince of modern times. He was born at Amerket, in the year of the Hegira 949 (1542 of the Christian æra), and, after the death of his father, ascended the throne, at the age of 13, and governed India under the guardianship of his minister, Beyram. His great talents were early developed. He fought with distinguished valor against his foreign foes and rebellious subjects, among whom was Beyram himself. His government was remarkable for its mildness and the greatest tolerance towards all sects. Though compelled, by continued commotions, to visit the different provinces of his empire at the head of his army, he loved the sciences, especially history, and was indefatigable in his attention to the internal administration of his empire. He instituted inquiries into the population, the nature and productions of each province. The results of his statistical labors were collected by his minister, Abul Fazl, in a work, entitled Ayeen Akberi, printed in English, at Calcutta, 1783-86, 3 vo.8., and reprinted in London. A. died, after a reign of 49 years, in 1017 (1604, A. D.) His splendid sepulchral monument still exists near Agra, with the simple inscription, Akbar the Admirable. He was succeeded by his son Selim, under the name Djihangir.

AKENSIDE, Mark, a poet and physician, was born in 1721, at Newcastle-uponTyne. His father, a butcher, of the Presbyterian sect, intended him for a clergyman, and placed him, at the age of 18, in the university of Edinburgh, to qualify him for that office. The taste of A. was not inclined to that profession, and he abandoned the study of theology for that of physic. Having received some assistance from the funds employed by the Dissenters in the education of young men intended for the ministry, he very honorably refunded the amount when he relinquished his theological studies. After 3 years residence at Edinburgh, he went to Leyden, and in 1744 became doctor of physic. In a thesis, which he published on receiving his degree, De Ortu et Incremento Fatus Humani, he proposed a new

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theory, which has been since confirmed and received. In the same year, he published the Pleasures of Imagination, which, however, he is said to have written during his residence at Edinburgh. In the following year, he published a collection of odes, and the epistle to Curio, a satire on Pulteney. After having unsuccessfully attempted the practice of his profession at Northampton and Hampstead, he was invited to London by his friend Mr. Dyson, from whom he received a pension of £300 a year. Here he became a fellow of the royal society, was admitted into the college of physicians, and read the Gulstonian lectures in anatomy, but never obtained a very extensive practice. While at London, he wrote little poetry, but published several medical essays and observations. His discourse on the dysentery (1764) has been much admired for the elegance of its Latinity. He died 1770, in the 49th year of his age, of a putrid fever. A. was a man of religion and strict morals; a philosopher, a scholar and a fine poet. His conversation is described to have been of the most delightful kind, learned and instructive, without any affectation of wit, cheerful and entertaining. Yet his pride, insolence and irascibility involved him in frequent disputes, and prevented his success in the practice of his profession. His favorite authors were Plato and Cicero among the ancients, and Shaftesbury and Hutchinson among the moderns. The odes of A. do not entitle him to a very high rank in lyric poetry; his epistle to Curio is written in a tone of vigorous and poignant satire. He is particularly distinguished as a didactic poet, and has left in his Pleasures of Imagination one of the most pleasing didactic poems in our language. The periods are harmonious, the cadence graceful, and the measure dignified. It is replete with elevated sentiments, with images of poetic beauty and high philosophy. The sentences are sometimes extended to too great length, splendid imagery too much accumulated, and the thought sometimes too thickly overlaid with words. These faults he endeavored to correct in the new edition, in which many other changes are introduced; but the original will always be more read and admired.

AKERBLAD, John David; by birth a Swede. When very young, he accompanied the Swedish embassy to Constantinople in the capacity of secretary. The leisure which his station afforded, he employed in travelling through the East.

He visited Jerusalem and the Troad in 1792 and 1797; and has offered some suggestions respecting the situation of the city of Troy, in the German translation of Le Chevalier's travels, which display both the classical scholar and the learned orientalist. For some time, about the year 1800, he lived in Göttingen, and then went to Paris, as Swedish chargé d'affaires. Discontent at the changes in his native country is said to have induced him to throw off all connexion with Sweden, and retire to Rome, where he received from the duchess of Devonshire, and other friends of literature, the means of living in literary leisure. He died at Rome, Feb. 8, 1819. His writings display a great knowledge of the oriental and western languages, which he could speak as well as interpret. Among them are his Lettre à M. Silvestre de Sacy, sur l'Écriture cursive Copte (Mag. Encyc., 1801, tom. v.), the Lettre à M. de Sacy, sur l'Inscription Egyptienne de Rosette (id. 1802, tom. iii.), his famous explanation of the inscriptions on the lions at Venice, Notice sur deux Inscriptions en Caractères Runiques, trouvées à Venise et sur les Varanges, avec les Remarques de M. d'Ausse de Villoison. Equally important, both for the knowledge of ancient writings and of inscriptions, is the Inscrizione Greca sopra una Lamina di piombo Trovato in un Sepolcro nelle Vicinanze d'Atene (Rome, 1813, 4to.), in improving which he was employed when surprised by death. The last of his works, that appeared in print, was a Lettre sur une Inscription Phénicienne trouvée à Athènes (Rome, 1814, 4to.), addressed to count Italinsky. The national institute at Paris chose him a corresponding member of their society. He lies buried near the pyramid of Čestius, at Rome.

AKERMAN, or ACKERMAN (the ancient Julia Alba and Hermonoclis); a town in Bessarabia, a province of Russia, on the coast of the Black sea, at the mouth of the Dniester, 65 miles S. E. of Bender, 68 S. W. of Otchakow; lon. 30° 44′ E.; lat. 46° 12′ N.; pop. stated very differently; formerly at 20,000, more recently at 8000. It contains a number of mosques, one Catholic and one Armenian church, and has some trade. A. has recently acquired some celebrity by the treaty between Russia and Turkey, there concluded, Oct. 6, 1826, in which the latter power agreed to the 82 points of the Russian ultimatum. This treaty is a supplement to the peace of Bucharest. The porte ceded to the emperor Nicholas all

the fortresses in Asia of which it had previously demanded the restoration, and acknowledged the political organization (if we dare use this expression for so rude a state of politics) which Russia had determined on for Servia, Moldavia and Walachia. But the treaty was not executed till 1827, and then not to the satisfaction of Russia. This furnished the ostensible reason of the present war between the two great eastern powers. (See Russia, and Ottoman Empire.)

ALABAMA, one of the U. States; bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by Florida and the gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi; lon. 85° to 88° 30′ W.; lat. 30° 10 to 35° N.; 330 miles long, from N. to S., and 174 from E. to W.; square miles, about 51,000; pop. in 1810, less than 10,000; in 1816, 29,683; in 1818, 70,544; in 1820, by the imperfect census as first returned, 127,901; by the census as subsequently completed, 144,317; in 1827, 244,041, of whom 152,178 were whites, 93,308 slaves, and 555 free persons of color. The last estimate of the number of Indians within the territory of the U. States, by the war department, in 1829, states that there are 19,200 Indians in the state of A.-The number of counties into which this state was divided in 1820, was 24; and in 1828, 36. Tuscaloosa is the present seat of government. Cahawba was formerly the capital. Mobile is the principal port. (q. v.)-The principal rivers are the Alabama, Tombeckbee, Mobile, Black-Warrior, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee, Chatahoochee, Perdido, Cahawba and Conecuh.-The southern part of the state, which borders on the gulf of Mexico and Florida, throughout a space 50 or 60 miles wide, is low and level, covered with pine, cypress and loblolly; in the middle it is hilly, with some tracts of open land or prairies; in the northern part it is somewhat broken and mountainous. The Alleghany mountains terminate in the north-east part. The foresttrees in the middle and northern divisions are post, black and white oak, hickory, poplar, cedar, chestnut, pine, mulberry, &c.-The soil is various, but a large part of it is excellent. In the south it is generally sandy and barren; and a part of the high lands are unfit for cultivation. A large portion of the country which lies between the Alabama and Tombeckbee, of that part watered by the Coosa and Tallapoosa, and of that on the Tennessee, consists of very excellent land. On the margin of the rivers there is a quantity of cane bottom-land of great fer

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tility, generally from to mile wide. On the outside of this is a space which is low, wet, and intersected by stagnant water. Next to this river swamp, and elevated 10 or 15 feet above it, succeeds an extensive body of level land, of a black, rich soil, with a growth of hickory, black oak, post oak, poplar, dogwood, &c. After this come the prairies, which are widespreading plains, or gently-waving land, without timber, clothed with grass, herbage and flowers, exhibiting, in the month of May, the most enchanting scenery.Cotton is the staple production, and is raised in great quantities. Other productions are maize, rice, wheat, rye, oats, &c. Iron ore is found in several places, and coal abounds on the Black-Warrior and Cahawba.-The climate in the southern part of the bottom-land bordering on the rivers, and of the country bordering on the Muscle shoals, is unhealthy. In the elevated country, the climate is very fine; the winters are mild, and the summers pleasant, being tempered by breezes from the gulf of Mexico.-The population of this state, from the time when the first settlement was commenced, has increased with remarkable rapidity. Occupying the valley of the Mobile and its tributary streams, the Alabama and Tombeckbee, its position, in an agricultural and commercial point of view, is highly advantageous; and from the fertility of its soil, and the value of its productions, it may be expected to become an important member of the Union.-The Cherokee Indians occupy the N. E. corner of the state, the Creeks the eastern part, and the Chickasaws and Choctaws some portions of the western.-Alabama originally belonged to the state of Georgia; in 1800, the country including the present states of Mississippi and Alabama was formed into a territory; the part of Florida between Pearl and Perdido rivers being taken possession of by the U. States in 1812, and annexed to this territory, emigration into it immediately commenced. During the years 1813 and 1814, it was harassed by the attacks of the savages, who were reduced to submission by general Jackson. In 1817, the western portion of the territory became the state of Mississippi, and the eastern the territory of Alabama, which, by an act of congress, March, 1819, was admitted into the Union as an independent state. By its constitution, adopted July, 1819, the legislative power is vested in two houses, chosen by universal suffrage. Many of the settlers in this state are rich planters. Some of the lands were