CHAPTER XVIII

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Population. - During this era (1840-1860) the tide of immigration increased and the population of the northern and eastern cities was materially affected by this influx of foreigners. The terrible famines in Ireland caused great numbers of people from this unfortunate country to come to America, and the crowded conditions of European cities also prompted a large migration to the United States. For the main part the newcomers settled in the North, where free labor alone was employed, and where there was a diversity of trades.

Manufactures were now increasing. The demand for skilled mechanics assured work for many of the trained factory hands from the Old World. So rapid was the growth of the cities that new problems of housing and educating the masses became questions of vital importance. Public schools grew more popular and more practical in their courses. The foreign children who were educated in these institutions rapidly learned the manners and customs of the American people, and soon came under the influence of the American system of government. The newcomers did much to foster nationalism. They came to this country with the intention of making their home in the United States of America. Often they landed without any definite idea of settling in a special city or state. In this attitude they felt a general interest in the whole country, hence in the general

influence of their opinions they were wholly lacking in sectional feelings.

In the South the population was still largely made up of the old American stock, whose deep-rooted convictions in regard to local interests dated through generations, whose personal regard for certain communities made sectional pride an innate feeling. The plantations were still worked mostly by slave labor. Thus the farming classes of Europe were not attracted to this district because of competition

with the bond labor.

Reforms. In this period of American history, certain reforms were started that left marked improvement upon the social life of the country. Among these was a wide

There had been a great

spread temperance movement. deal of drunkenness over the land. The distress and hardship caused by this evil habit were brought home to many persons who dispensed liquors on all social occasions. Clergyman, cultured, refined people, and highly moral citizens, all thought it good form to keep decanters of wine and other intoxicating beverages on their sideboards and serve to young and old this symbol of hospitality.

Temperance lecturers took up the question and held public meetings where earnest talks were made in favor of "Teetotal Abstinence." These meetings were held all over the United States, and Washingtonian Societies and other temperance associations were formed whose members pledged themselves not to use nor serve any intoxicants. It was estimated that 600,000 drunkards signed the pledge in one year, and that many were reformed entirely from this direful condition. The effects were definitely felt in the reduction of crime, and in the great moral uplift that swept over the land.

Prison Reforms. In the early part of the eighteenth century the penal systems throughout the world were wretched in their plans for caring for the criminal classes.

Many persons were thrown into prison for debt and forced to languish in confinement without any opportunity to work and pay their indebtedness. In most instances the prisons were foul and unsanitary and bred loathsome diseases. The prisoners were kept in idleness, and were frequently whipped and mistreated; no attempt was made to separate the classes of criminals, nor was any opportunity offered to them to reform. The indigent insane were also confined in prisons, and their distress was very great.

DOROTHEA DIX.

Among those that sought to remedy these conditions in American prisons was a splendid woman, by the name of Dorothea Dix, who talked and wrote on the subject and kept up the work until Prison Reform Associations were organized, and many changes were made. States began to make appropriations for insane asylums; prisons were made more cleanly

and sanitary; prisoners were taught useful trades; young criminals were separated from the older prisoners; and debtors were no longer sentenced to long-term imprisonment. Nor has this great reform movement ceased, for to-day it is one of the most active forces in improving the condition of this unfortunate part of our population.

Woman's Equal Rights. Another social movement that was started at this time was the Woman's Equal Rights campaign. Among the leaders of this issue was Frances Wright, who earnestly sought to secure higher education for woman.

In the early days women's educa

tion was limited to the study of a few subjects. It was usually completed in a high school, or young ladies' seminary, where the basis of the work included a course in certain accomplishments that laid the foundation for social

success.

The broader fields of work were entirely closed to young women, and it took a great amount of earnest appeals to secure higher education for them. Oberlin College, Ohio, was the first to open its doors for coeducation. In time, other colleges gradually opened certain classes, until to-day nearly every university has all of its departments open to

women.

Later the leaders in this work took up the question of equal suffrage, and formed what is known as the Woman's Suffrage Association. This organization has a large membership in every state in the Union. So influential has been their work that a number of states have granted their request already. In these communities women vote and hold office on the same basis as men. The suffrage question, however, has not been the only issue taken up by the Equal Rights' Association, but widespread plans for the bettering of conditions for women and children have been undertaken, and better wages, shorter hours for workers, child-labor protection, juvenile courts, day nurseries, and other interests pertaining to the welfare of women and children have been organized.

Religious Revivals. — This era was also marked by earnest religious revivals. Protracted meetings were held by the different denominations in cities. Strong appeals were made for more active interest in church work. Out in the country, camp meetings were held that were largely attended by persons coming for miles to listen to the earnest sermons of evangelists and circuit riders. Sunday schools were organized where children were systematically instructed in religious doctrines. Bible Societies for

the distribution of Bibles were formed with the motto "A Bible in Every Home."

About this time some students in Williams College dedicated their lives to Christian work in foreign countries. It was through this movement that the American Board of Commissioners for For

eign Missions was organized, that has become world-renowned.

Education. - The greatest advancement in the field of education was made in the reorganization of the public school system. Horace Mann advocated the idea that the public school should be the people's school, and that it should be patronized by rich and poor alike and supported by the state. This idea took hold of the American people. The patronage of the public Schools increased, the course of study was revised, larger appropria

tions were made by communities, and wealthy men made munificent bequests to the cause of common education.

During this period John McDonogh, a wealthy citizen of New Orleans, died and left the bulk of his fortune for public education in his native city, Baltimore, and in New Orleans. A splendid technological school was opened in the city of Baltimore. More than thirty-two public schools