to evade them. The Spartan women also conducted themselves differently, as the laws of Lycurgus required them to exhibit themselves in public. These women did not mourn the loss of their husbands or sons who died the death of heroes in battle, but appeared in public with every indication of joy after such an occurrence, and only seemed sorrowful when those with whom they were connected had disgraced themselves by returning home unhurt from an unsuccessful battle with their country's enemies.

Thus Greek women were virtual slaves, and led secluded lives in their homes, both before and after marriage, devoting themselves to weaving, spinning and domestic duties. They took care of the sick and had charge of the servants, who were slaves. The Hetara, chiefly foreigners, were a class of women who enjoyed greater social privileges, living in their own houses, and receiving guests of both sexes. These were generally noted for their personal beauty and grace of manners, and also for literary accomplishments, and are said to have been "the most witty and brilliant talkers of Athens." The famous Aspásia, who became the wife of Pericles, belonged to this class.

The Greeks were divided into two great classes, freemen and slaves. We have observed that in Sparta the slaves performed all mechanical, agricultural and menial labors; while the free citizens employed themselves in war and military exercises, in superintending the public schools, in conversation, or in religious services. But in Athens and the other Grecian republics the citizens engaged in mechanical employments, as well as in the more lucrative pursuits of commerce; while the slaves engaged in various handicrafts, as well as agricultural and menial duties.

The Greeks had slaves of all classes and grades, such as domestic servants, agricultural laborers, and artisans. The rich families had many slaves, while the poor citizen had only one. The governments of the various Grecian states employed slaves upon

The Greeks worked mines of silver, copper and iron, and obtained marble and other building stone from the quarries. They engaged in spinning and weaving, pottery, and the manufacture of arms and armor, gold and silver ornaments, hardware and furniture. Besides the large numbers employed in industrial arts were the merchants, shopkeepers, tradesmen and agriculturists. Piræus was the sea-port of Athens; but the wholesale trade, and most of the retail trade, were conducted in the market-places.

In ancient Greece were leather bottlemakers; bankers; barbers, some of them females; barber surgeons, whose shops were lounging-places; basket-makers; butchers; blacksmiths; carpenters; coppersmiths; cotton manufacturers; curriers; dyers; enamelers; factors; farmers; fishermen; flax-dressers; founders; fresco painters; fullers; gilders; goldsmiths; gardeners; weighers; papermakers; perfumers; pilots; tutors; quack doctors; shepherds; tanners; weavers, etc.

In Athens many of the citizens had no private occupation, but lived on the pay they obtained for attending the political and judicial assemblies, on the provisions made to them at the public festivals, and on the money occasionally granted them from the public treasury or from the coffers of wealthy citizens. Their pastimes were conversation, or listening to the orators in the Agora, or market-place, walking in the public gardens, attending the lectures and disputations of the philosophers and assisting in the many processions, games and festivities, which were held in honor of the gods.

Writing was done with ink made from soot, on prepared skins, bark, papyrus, or with a

sharp-pointed instrument on thin sheets of lead or layers of wax. During the glorious days of Athens many private persons had large libraries. The Greeks very carefully attended to the education of the young. The Spartan system of training, as we have seen, consisted only of exercises calculated to discipline the mind to fortitude and to strengthen the physical powers; as the study of the arts and the sciences, and the pursuits of literature, were considered unworthy the attention of a Lacedæmonian citizen. But the Athenians, and other Grecians who imitated the usages and institutions of Athens, gave their youths a far more liberal education. Boys only went to school. The schoolmaster was the grammaticus, or grammarian. The sons of wealthy parents had a pedagogue, or private tutor, who watched over them when out of school, and who was generally selected from the slaves. The elementary branches, such as reading, writing, grammar, music, recitation, and later, philosophy and oratory, were taught. Passages from the works of the poets were committed to memory. The music taught consisted of singing, playing on the lyre, and reciting compositions in poetry. In early manhood the sons of the wealthy attended lectures on philosophy, oratory etc., in the Lyceum, the Academy, or some other institution. were many schools; while attendance upon the public debates, where the first and greatest orators in the world were heard, was general.

There

Gymnasia, provided at the public expense, were much resorted to for pastime and exercise; and there the body was rendered supple by running, leaping, boxing, wrestling, throwing the discus, the javelin, or the quoit, shooting with the bow and arrow, etc. The gymnasium was a part of Greek education, and was the training school for the Olympic Games. In later years the porticos became the resort of philosophers, rhetoricians and Sophists, who publicly discussed moral and metaphysical questions.

The Greeks were fond of music and played on stringed-instruments, such as the

harp and the lyre, and on wind instruments, such as the double and the single pipe. The Athenians highly prized musical accomplishments, and female musicians were hired at feasts and social gatherings to heighten the enjoyment of the guests.

Marriages among the Greeks were generally arranged by the parents, and dowries were expected. The Athenian marriages were generally formed at an early age, the Grecian women being marriageable when they were in their fourteenth year. Nuptial engagements were entered into with many formalities, yet they were dissolved very easily, as all that was required for that purpose was that the parties should furnish the Archon with a written certificate of their agreement to separate from each other. The Spartan marriages were of a singular character, like all the other Lacedæmonian institutions. After a Spartan had obtained the consent of the lady's parents, he was obliged to carry off his destined spouse, as it was regarded as very unbecoming in a lady to consent to be married. Even after they had become married, the young husband and wife were extremely careful to avoid being seen in each other's society; and when there happened to be no children, years sometimes passed before it was generally known that the parties were married, so secret were they in all their associations with each other.

The Greeks celebrated their funerals with great pomp and ceremony. The corpse was first washed, anointed, and dressed in a costly garment; after which it was laid out in state, for one, two, or sometimes even three days. A wreath of flowers was placed on its head, and in its hand was set a cake of flour and honey as an offering to Cerberus, the three headed watch-dog of Hades. The Greeks believed that before the remains of the dead were buried the soul wandered about in Hades without rest, not being permitted to cross the river Styx into Elysium. Immediately after death a small coin, called an obolus, and equal in value to about a penny and a half of English money, was placed in the mouth of the deceased to pay the ferryman

Charon for taking his spirit across the dark river Styx. Between the time of death and the funeral the body was constantly surrounded by relatives and friends as mourners, with hired women making loud lamentations, and with a chorus of flute-players. On the funeral day the corpse, enclosed in a cypress coffin, was put on a chariot and conveyed to the place where it was to be finally disposed of. The funeral proccession accompanying the remains was arranged in the following order: First came musicians, playing or chanting mournful tunes; after which advanced the male relatives and friends in black attire; next followed the coffin, and behind it walked the women. In accordance with the directions of the deceased or of the family, the corpse was either buried in a grave, vault or tomb, or burned upon a funeral pile. Piles of wood, called pyra (meaning pyres), were used for burning a corpse, and oil and perfumes were cast into the flames. When the pyræ had burned down, the remains were extinguished with wine, and the bones were gathered, washed with wine and oil, and deposited in urns, which were sometimes made of gold. Bodies which were buried were first put in coffins usually made of baked clay or earthenware. Vases and other articles were laid in the grave with the dead. Libations of wine were made at the same time, or a sacrifice was offered to the gods, prayers were said, and the name of the deceased was invoked aloud. The ceremony was ended with a funeral banquet, and it was customary to erect a monumental stone or statue over the grave. At stated times sacrifices were performed at the tomb, and the grave was decorated with flowers.

Religious rites and ceremonies mainly devolved upon the priests, but the people attended at the services in the temples, and furnished their finest cattle and their choicest products as offerings. No business was undertaken without consulting the gods by religious ceremonies.

There were three principal gymnasia, which were places of public exercise near Athens, and there the philosophers and

rhetoricians delivered their lectures. The most famous of these was the Academy, which was so named because it had been the country-seat of the wealthy Académus, who spent most of a large fortune in ornamenting this delightful site. It was here where Plato delivered his lectures, for which reason his followers were named Academics. On the opposite side of the city, near the river Ilyssus, was the Lycéum, with its shady groves in which Aristotle lectured to his pupils. Cynosárges, about a mile from the Lycéum, was the residence of Antísthenes, the founder of the sect of the Cynics.

The whole country about Athens, especially the long road to Piræus, was ornamented with various kinds of monuments, particularly with tombs of eminent poets, statesmen and warriors. This road was enclosed by a double wall, called the Northern and Southern walls, erected during the administration of Themistocles. This double wall was almost five miles long on both sides, and enclosed the two harbors called respectively Piræus and Phalerum. The walls, which were constructed wholly of freestone, were more than eighty feet high and so wide that two baggage wagons could pass each other. Piræus and Phalerum were really small cities, with public squares, temples, market-places, etc. The crowd that enlivened the quays of Piræus gave that chief harbor a livelier appearance than Athens itself. The port of Munychia lay to the east of Piræus, and, like both Piræus and Phalerum, was formed by the bays of the coast. Munychia was a place of great natural strength, and the Spartans garrisoned it after they had conquered Athens.

Athens was located in a plain, which, on the south-east, extended for about four miles toward the sea and the harbors, but was enclosed by mountains on the other side. Several rocky hills arose in the plain, of which the largest and loftiest was fortified by Cecrops as the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, and was sometimes named Cecropia. Most of the buildings were erected around

this citadel, spreading toward the sea. The summit of the hill was almost level for a space of about eight hundred feet long by four hundred feet wide, as if Nature herself had designed the site for those masterpieces of architecture which displayed the splendor of Athens at a distance. The only road leading to the Acropolis passed through the Propylæa, a magnificent gateway adorned with two wings and two temples filled with the finest samples of sculpture and painting. This gateway was erected by the architect Mnesicles, during the administration of Pericles, and was decorated with elegant sculptures by Phidias. Through these splendid portals was an ascent by steps leading to the summit of the hill, which was crowned with the temples of the guarIdian deities of Athens. On the left stood the temple of Athênê, the protectress of cities, containing a column which fable represented as having fallen from heaven, and an olive-tree believed to have sprung spontaneously from the ground at the decree of the goddess. The temple of Poseidon was beyond that of Athênê. On the right side towered the Parthenon, sacred to the virgin Athênê "the glory of Athens, and the noblest triumph of Grecian architecture." The Parthenon, raising its lofty head above the city and the Acropolis, was the first object which caught the eyes of the traveler, whether he approached by land or sea.

At the foot of the Acropolis, on one side, stood the Odéum, or music hall, and the theater of Dionysus, where were celebrated the tragic contests on the festival of that

god. On the other side stood the Prytanéum, where the chief magistrates and the most worthy citizens were honorably entertained at a table furnished at the public expense. A small valley named Colé (the hollow) lay between the Acropolis and the hill on which the Court of Areopagus had its sittings. This valley also separated the Areopagus from the Pnyx, the small rocky hill on which the people met in their general assemblies. The simplicity of the furniture of the Pnyx contrasted remarkably with the grandeur of the neighboring edifices. On this spot the renowned orators of Athens addressed the assembled masses. This spot can still be seen, as it is cut in the natural rock, and has in the present century been cleared of its rubbish, and the four steps by which it was ascended.

The Ceramicus, or pottery-ground, containing the market-place, lay beyond the Pnyx. The market-place was a large square surrounded on every side with public buildings. On the south was the Senate-house and the statues of the Eponymi, ten heroes from whom the tribes of Athens derived their respective names. On the east stood two splendid Stoai, or porticoes-that of the Hermæ, or statues of Hermes, bearing inscriptions of the names of the citizens, allies and slaves, who had distinguished themselves in the Persian War; and that of the Poëcilé ornamented with numerous elegant paintings, especially one representing Miltíades at the battle of Marathon. Under this Stoa Zeno lectured to his pupils, wherefore the disciples were called Stoics.

donian throne, Alexander encountered some little opposition from his first cousin, the son of Philip's brother; but the young king soon overcame this opposition. His qualifications rendered it extremely difficult for any pretender to dispute his claims. Alexander was calculated to win his way to a throne amid a multitude of rival competitors, as he was in the flower of youth, possessed of a handsome and active though slight person, and also of a countenance full of manly beauty, and winning manners, and as he was already famed for his military skill and his chivalrous valor. Alexander was only twenty years of age when he ascended his father's throne.

Frequent allusion is made to a remarkable instance of his extraordinary readiness of judgment. One day a fiery horse was brought out before Philip and his courtiers, when it was discovered to be impossible for any one to mount the beast, until Alexander came forward and easily accomplished the task, after he had discovered that the direct cause of it being unmanageable was that its head was turned to the sun. This royal youth was the only one present who had sufficient penetration to perceive this. This animal became the celebrated war-horse which carried Alexander through many of his campaigns, and was named Bucéphalus. This remarkable quickness of intellect had all the advantages of culture through the care of Aristotle.

The young king first devoted himself to measures for the preservation of the Macedonian ascendency in Grecian affairs. He made a journey to Corinth for this purpose, and received the submission of the states of Thessaly on his route thither. When he reached Corinth he convened the deputies of the Amphictyonic republics, took his seat among them as an Amphictyon, and easily obtained from them his appointment as generalissimo, or captain-general of the GræcoMacedonian confederacy, the post so recently occupied by his father.

Philip's designs on Asia by the conquest of the Medo-Persian Empire, which had formally been approved by the Grecian con

gress at Corinth, were revived by the youthful Alexander, and the congress again promised the assistance of the Grecian republics (B. C. 335). The young monarch then returned to Macedon, where his presence was demanded; as the Illyrians, the Triballi, the independent Thracian tribes, and other nations bordering on Macedon, had risen in arms against that suddenly-risen power and menaced it with serious calamities; but Alexander, by his military skill and his valor, subdued the hostile tribes very easily, and proved to his barbarian neighbors what he had told his subjects in a different spirit when he became sovereign, namely, that "the king's name only was changed; but the king remained the same."

Alexander likewise gave a terrible proof of his equal ability with his father, soon afterward, in his treatment of the Grecian states. While he was occupied in Illyria, a rumor of his death was circulated. The democratic party at Athens was elated by the news, and Sparta once more thought of becoming supreme in Greece; but the report excited the greatest sensation at Thebes. That city beheld a humiliating memorial of departed freedom, in the Macedonian garrison which Philip had placed in the Cadmæa. When intelligence arrived that the youthful Macedonian sovereign was dead, a favorable opportunity seemed to have arisen for casting off the Macedonian thralldom. The democratic party in Thebes, which had opposed the interests of Alexander, now arose and put to death Amyntas and Timolaüs, the commanders of the Macedonian garrison in the citadel, but who did not reside in it.

Seeing the necessity of decisive measures to nip this revolt in the bud, Alexander immediately led his army against Thebes, which he reached in the remarkably-short space of fourteen days. He desired to give the rebels an opportunity for peaceful submission, but they sallied from the city with rash impetuosity and attacked his troops; and the consequence was that Alexander took Thebes, and utterly destroyed the city, in punishment for the revolt. A vast mul