of all the Indo-European languages. They were a pastoral people, but not nomads, as they had fixed habitations. They had oxen, horses, sheep, goats, hogs and domestic fowls. Herds of cows fed in pastures, each owned by a community, and each having a cluster of stables in the center. The daughters of the house were the dairy-maids. The food was mainly the products of the dairy and the flesh of the cattle. The cow was the most important animal, and its name was given to many plants, and even to the clouds and stars, wherein many fancied heavenly herds to be passing over the firmament.

The Aryans were likewise an agricultural people, as they certainly had barley, and perhaps other cereals before their separation into the three branches which spread over India, Media and Persia, and Europe. They possessed the plow, also mills for grinding grain. They had hatchets, hammers and augurs. They were acquainted with gold, silver, copper and tin. They could spin and weave, and were acquainted with pottery. Their houses had doors, windows and fireplaces. They had cloaks or mantles. They boiled and roasted meat, and used soup. They had lances, swords, bows and arrows, and shields. They had family life, some simple laws, games, dances, and wind instruments. They were quainted with the decimal notation, and their year had three hundred and sixty days. They worshiped the heaven, the earth, the sun, fire, water, wind; but this Nature-worship was developed out of an earlier monotheism.

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It is believed to have been three thousand years before Christ when the Aryan ancestors of the Hindoos crossed the Indus and settled in the Hindoo peninsula, which they eventually overspread, conquering the original dark-skinned races of the peninsula and intermingling with them. After the Aryan emigrants had settled in the region between the Punjab and the Ganges, they became transformed from warlike shepherds into tillers of the soil and builders of cities. India became one of the most ancient seats

of civilization, the Hindoos attaining a high degree of advancement in art, literature and philosophy; but their civilization at length became stationary, and they made no further progress. Their literature was immense; and their works were all written in the very ancient and sacred Sanskrit language, now obsolete; and many of these works are about four thousand years old. The oldest works in the Hindoo literature are the Vedas, the early sacred writings.

M. Saint Martin says that the last hymn of the Vedas was written when the Hindoos had arrived at the Ganges from the Indus, and were building their oldest city at the confluence of the river with the Jumna: They then had a white complexion, and called the race whom they conquered blacks, who subsequently became Sudras, or the lowest caste of India.

After conquering the original dark-skinned natives of the country, the Aryan immigrants imposed a system of castes in the severest form upon the population. The number of castes was four, and the members of each were not allowed to intermarry or associate with those of any other caste. This rule has been strictly adhered to by the Hindoos to the present time. The first caste was that of the priests, or Brahmans, who were a wealthy, honorable and privileged class, possessing the chief political and ecclesiastical power, and were held in greater respect and veneration than the princes. They were regarded as sacred and inviolable. They were not subject to corporeal punishment for any crime, were exempt from all taxation, and constituted the king's chief council and held all the offices. The next caste was that of the warriors, who were responsible for the security and defense of the state, in return for their compensation and certain privileges. But the peaceful character of the people and the remoteness of the country from powerful enemies furnished little occasion for military duty; and thus the soldiers soon became slothful and degenerate, thus making it easy for the priests, or Brahmans, to maintain their political ascendency. The kings be

longed to the soldier caste. The third caste was composed of the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen and mechanics, who were heavily burdened with taxes and held the land only in right of occupancy, not ownership. The fourth caste was that of the servants and laborers, called Sudras, and were descended from the dark-skinned aborigines conquered by the Aryan immigrants. Every man was obliged to follow his father's occupation; and those who violated the rules of caste-a crime considered worse than death-became Pariahs, or outcasts. They were regarded by the other Hindoos as the refuse of mankind, and were treated with the deepest contempt. "They do not venture to dwell in the towns, cities or villages, or even in their neighborhood; everything they touch is looked upon as unclean, and it is pollution even to have seen them."

The

The rigorous division of Hindoo society into castes, laid down by the Brahmans as a divine ordinance, checked the progress of civilization after it had reached a certain point, and caused it to lapse into a state of repose and stagnation. sensibility and creative imagination of the Hindoos appears in their copious literature, which relates intimately to their theology and religion. The most important of their literary productions are the four books of the Vedas, which are held in the most profound respect by all classes of Hindoos, as their religion. They include religious hymns and prayers, directions respecting sacrifices, and moral proverbs and maxims. The laws of Manu are most highly reverenced after the Vedas. The Hindoos possessed many other poetical works, distinguished for highly figurative language and for deep sensibility and religious feeling. Many of these have been brought to Europe by the English since their conquest of the country, and have been translated by scholars into the modern European languages. In the first century after Christ-many ages before Copernicus lived-Aryabhatta, a Hindoo, taught that the earth is a sphere, and that it revolves on its own axis.

The vast realm of Sanskrit literature was

unknown to Europe until a century ago, when Sir William Jones, the great English scholar and Orientalist, introduced it to the knowledge of the West. "The vast realm of Hindoo, Chinese and Persian genius was as much a new continent to Europe, when discovered by Sir William Jones, as America was when made known by Columbus. Its riches had been accumulating during thousands of years, waiting till the fortunate man should arrive, destined to reveal to our age the barbaric pearl and gold of the gorgeous East-the true wealth of Ormus and of Ind."

Sir William Jones translated the laws of Manu, extracts from the Vedas, and other works, from the Sanskrit into English. Since his time wonderful progress has been made in the study of Sanskrit literature, especially within the last half century, since the time when the Schlegels led the way in this field. Professors of Sanskrit are now found in all the great European universities, and this country has produced one eminent Sanskrit scholar in Professor William D. Whitney, of Yale College. Among the leading European Sanskrit scholars is Professor Max Müller, of the university of Oxford, in England, a native of Germany. The system of Brahmanism, which until recently was only known to Western readers through the works of Colebrooke, Wilkins, Wilson and a few others, has now become accessible through the writings of Max Müller, Lassen, Bopp, Weber, Windischmann, Burnouf, Muir, Vivien de Saint-Martin, and a host of other distinguished writers in Germany, France and England.

Hindoo art, as well as literature, was intimately connected with religion. Especially worthy of attention are the rock-hewn temples and grottoes, the most renowned of which are those found at Ellora, in the middle of Lower India, at Salsette, near Bombay, and on the island of Elephanta, in the bay of Bombay. In these places we see temples, grottoes, dwellings and passages, covered with images and inscriptions cut one above another in the solid rock, and extending for miles. These grottoes contain a

vast quantity of works executed artistically and elaborately, which must have required the labors of many thousands of men for countless ages, and the greatest diligence and perseverence for their completion.

The great abundance of the productions of nature and art in India, such as pearls, precious stones, ivory, spices, frankincense and silks, has made that country famous

from an early period, as the great center of the maritime and caravan trade, and has likewise made it a constant prey to foreign invasion and conquest. Disunited, and divided into many petty kingdoms, and weakened by the system of castes and other institutions, enervated by the lack of individual freedom, the Hindoos were easily subdued by foreign invaders.

HE theology taught by the Vedas embraced such chief gods as Indra, god of the air; Varuna, god of light, or heaven; Agni, god of fire; Savitri, god of the Sun; and Soma, god of the moon. Yama was the god of death. All the pow

ers of Nature were personified in turn, as earth, food, wine, seasons, months, day, night and dawn. Indra and Agni were the chief of all the divinities, but an original monotheism lurks behind this incipient polytheism, as each god in turn becomes the Supreme Being. The Universal Deity appears first in one form of Nature, then in another. Colebrooke says that "the ancient Hindoo religion recognizes but one God, not yet sufficiently discriminating the creature from the Creator." And Professor Max Müller says: "The hymns celebrate Varuna, Indra, Agni, etc., and each in turn is called supreme. The whole mythology is fluent. The powers of nature become moral beings."

Max Müller adds: "It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute. Agni is called 'Ruler of the Universe;' Indra is celebrated as the strongest god, and in one hymn it is said, 'Indra is stronger than all.' It is said of Soma that he 'conquers every one.'"

But clearer traces of monotheism than these are found in the Vedas. In one hymn

of the Rig-Veda it is said: "They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni; then he is the well-winged heavenly Garutmat; that which is One, the wise call it many ways; they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan."

The following from the Rig-Veda, the oldest of the Vedic hymns, clearly expresses the unity of God:

"In the beginning there arose the Source of golden light. He was the only born Lord of all that is. He established the earth, and this sky. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"He who gives life. He who gives strength; whose blessing all the bright gods desire; whose shadow is immortality, whose shadow is death. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"He who through his power is the only king of the breathing and awakening world. He who governs all, man and beast. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"He whose power these snowy mountains, whose power the sea proclaims, with the distant river. He whose these regions are, as it were his two arms. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"He through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm. He through whom heaven was established; nay, the highest heaven. He who measured out the light in the air. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by his will, look up, trembling in

shall offer our sacrifice?

"Wherever the mighty water-clouds went, where they placed the seed and lit the fire, thence arose he who is the only life of the bright gods. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"He who by his might looked even over the water-clouds, the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice; he who is God above all gods. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?

"May he not destroy us-he the creator of the earth-or he, the righteous, who created heaven; he who also created the bright and mighty waters. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifices?"

This is one of many hymns to Agni: "Agni, accept this log which I offer to thee, accept this my service; listen well to these my songs.

"With this log, O Agni, may we worship thee, thou son of strength, conqueror of horses! and with this hymn, thou high-born!

"May we thy servants serve thee with songs, O granter of riches, thou who lovest songs and delightest in riches.

"Thou lord of wealth and giver of wealth, be thou wise and powerful; drive away from us the enemies!

"He gives us rain from heaven, he gives us inviolable strength, he gives us food a thousandfold.

"Youngest of the gods, their messenger, their invoker, most deserving of worship, come at our praise, to him who worships thee and longs for thy help.

"For thou, O sage, goest wisely between these two creations (heaven and earth, gods and men), like a friendly messenger between two hamlets.

"Thou art wise, and thou hast been pleased; perform thou intelligent Agni, the sacrifice without interruption, sit down on this sacred grass!"

Indra is praised thus in the Rig-Veda: "He who as soon as born is the first of the deities, who has done honor to the gods by his deeds; he at whose might heaven and

earth are alarmed and who is known by the greatness of his strength; he, men, is Indra. "He who fixed firm the moving earth, who spread the spacious firmament; he, men, is Indra.

"He who having destroyed Vritra, set free the seven rivers: who recovered the cows; who generated fire in the clouds; who is invincible in battle; he, men, is Indra.

"He to whom heaven and earth bow down; he at whose might the mountains are appalled; he who is drinker of the Soma juice, the firm of frame, the adamant armed, the wielder of the thunderbolt; he, men, is Indra. May we envelope thee with acceptable praises as husbands are embraced by their wives"

Some of the verses in this hymn bear a strong likeness to one of the grandest Psalms in the Bible, the 139th:

"The great lord of these worlds sees as if he were near. If a man thinks he is walking by stealth, the gods know it all.

"If a man stands or walks or hides, if he goes to lie down or to get up, what two people sitting together whisper, King Varuna knows it, he is there as the third."

(So the Psalmist says: "Thou compassest my path and my lying down and art acquainted with all my ways." Verse 3.)

"This earth, too, belongs to Varuna the king, and this wide sky with its ends far apart. The two seas (the sky and the ocean) are Varuna's loins; he is also contained in this drop of water.

"He who should flee far beyond the sky, even he would not be rid of Varuna the king. His spies proceed from heaven toward this world; with thousand eyes they overlook this earth. (Compare with this verse 7 to 12 of the same psalm.)

"King Varuna sees all this, what is between heaven and earth, and what is beyond. He has counted the twinklings of the eyes of men. As a player throws the dice, he settles all things.

"May all thy fatal nooses, which stand spread out seven by seven and threefold, catch the man who tells a lie, may they pass by him who tells the truth."

‘Do not deliver us unto death, nor to the blow of the furious, nor to the wrath of the spiteful!"

Again:

"Wise and mighty are the works of him who stemmed asunder the wide firmaments (heaven and earth). He lifted on high the bright and glorious heaven; he stretched out apart the starry sky and the earth.

"I ask, O Varuna! wishing to know this my sin. I go to ask the wise. The sages all tell me the same: Varuna it is who is angry with thee.

"Absolve us from the sins of our fathers, and from those which we committed with our own bodies.”

The following contains some of the finest verses in the Veda:

"Let me not yet, O Varuna! enter into the house of clay; have mercy, almighty, have mercy!

"If I go along trembling, like a cloud driven by the wind; have mercy, almighty, have mercy!

"Through want of strength, thou strong and bright god, have I gone wrong; have mercy, almighty, have mercy!

"Thirst came upon the worshiper, though he stood in the midst of the waters; have mercy, almighty, have mercy!

"Whenever we men, O Varuna! commit an offence before the heavenly host, whenever we break the law through thoughtlessness; punish us not, O god, for that offence!"

Max Müller divides the Vedic age into four periods, thus: Sutra period, from B. C. 200 to B. C. 600. Brahmana period, from B. C. 600 to B. C. 800. Mantra period, from B. C. 800 to B. C. 1000. Chandas period, from B. C. 1000 to B. C. 1200. Dr. Haug considers the Vedic period as extending from B. C. 1200 to B. C. 2000, and the very oldest hymns to have been composed B. C. 2400.

Indra, the god of the air, is the chief

Zeus in Greek, and Jupiter in Latin. The hymns to Indra sound very much like the Psalms of David. Indra is invoked as the most ancient god whom the fathers worshiped. Next to Indra comes Agni, the god of fire. Fire is worshiped as the principal motion on earth, as Indra was the moving power above the earth. The forms of the flame and all belonging to it are worshiped, as well as the fire itself. All nature is called Aditi, whose children are named Adityas. M. Maury quotes from Gautama these words: "Aditi is heaven; Aditi is air; Aditi is mother, father and son; Aditi is all the gods and the five races; Aditi is whatever is born and will be born; in short the heavens and the earth, the heavens being the father and the earth the mother of all things. "This closely resembles the Greek Zeus-pateer and Gee-mêteer. Varuna is the vault of heaven. Mitra is frequently associated with Varuna in the Vedic hymns. Mitra is the sun illuminating the day, while Varuna was the sun with an obscure face going back in the darkness from west to east to again take his luminous disk. From Mitra the Persian Mithra appears to be derived. In the Veda there are no invocations to the stars, but the Aurora, or Dawn, is greatly admired; as are likewise the Aswins, or twin gods, who in Greece become the Dioscuri. Rudra, the god of storms, is supposed by some writers to be the same as Siva. But the two antagonistic worships of Vishnu and Siva do not appear until long after this period. Vishnu appears frequently in the Veda, and his three steps are often alluded to. These steps of Vishnu measure the heavens, but his actual worship appeared at a much later period.

The religion of the Vedas consisted of odes and hymns-a religion of worship simply by adoration. There were sometimes prayers for temporal blessings, sometimes only for sacrifices and libations. There are scarcely any traces of human sacrifices.

Brahmanism began long after the age of the Vedas, and its text-book is the Laws of