LTHOUGH Africa was circumnavigated in very early times, the interior yet remains unexplored; and the southern part, because of the difficulty of navigation in the ocean, was neglected until all knowledge of its discovery had been forgotten. But the northern coast bordering on the Mediterranean became lined with Greek and Phoenician colonies. This vast region was naturally divided into three strips, differing in width, almost parallel with the sea-line-1, the maritime country, which consisted mainly of very fertile tracts, whence it was called Inhabited Africa, is now styled Barbary; 2, a rugged mountain district, whose loftiest peaks form the chain of Mount Atlas, in which abound wild horses and palm-groves, whence the ancients called it the land of lions, and the moderns Beled el Gerid, or the Land of Dates, while the Romans generally called it Gætulia; 3, a vast sandy desert, called Sahara by the Arabs.

Several small rivers flow north into the Mediterranean from the chain of Mount Atlas, but there are no important streams on the south side of these mountains, and there is no great river in the interior north of the distant Niger, of which the ancients knew very little or nothing; and nothing was actually known of its real course until the present century, when the Lander brothers first explored it along its entire

course.

The Mediterranean coast of Africa west of Egypt embraced six political divisions.

Of these, Marmarica, the most eastern division, bordering on Egypt, was a sandy tract occupied by nomad tribes. Cyrenaica, west of Marmarica, was a fertile district planted with Greek colonies, extending to the greater Syrtis, and its chief cities were Cyrêné and Barca. Both Marmarica and Cyrenaica embrace the territory of the modern Barca. Regio Syrtica, the modern Beylik of Tripoli, was a sandy region subject to the Carthaginians, but principally occupied by nomad hordes. The domestic territory of Carthage embraced that of the modern Beylik of Tunis. West of this section was a very fruitful country subject to Carthage, the northern part being called Byzacéna, and the southern Zeugitána. Numidia embraced the eastern part of the territory of the present Algeria. Mauritania comprised the middle and western portion of the present Algeria and the northern part of the domain included in the present empire of Morocco. Numidia and Mauritania were both occupied by nomad hordes, the ancestors of the present Moors and Berbers; but both these countries had some Carthaginian colonies along the coasts.

The mighty city of Carthage-for a long time the mistress of the Mediterraneanwas built on a peninsula in the interior of a large bay, now known as the Gulf of Tunis, formed by the projection of the Hermaan promontory (now Cape Bon) on the east, and the promontory of Apollo (now Cape Zebid) on the west. The peninsula was about midway between Utica and Tunis, both these cities being visible from the walls

of Carthage; Utica being about nine miles distant, and Tunis only six miles. This peninsula was connected with the mainland by an isthmus with an average of about three miles in length; and on the seaside was a narrow neck of land projecting westward, forming a double harbor, and serving as a mole or breakwater to protect the shipping. Towards the sea the city was fortified only by a single wall; but the isthmus was guarded by the citadel Byrsa, and by a triple wall eighty feet high and about thirty feet wide.

The African territory of Carthage extended westward along the coast of the Pillars of Hercules (now Straits of Gibraltar); eastward to the altars of Philæni, which marked the frontier between the territories of Cyrêné and Carthage; and

southward to the Tritonian lake, but many of the nomad tribes beyond these limits were nominally subject to the great commercial republic.

The fertile provinces of Carthage were occupied by a people who tilled the soil, and extended in a direct line from Cape Bon to the most eastern angle of the Triton lake, a distance of almost two hundred geographical miles, with an average breadth of one hundred and fifty miles.

The foreign possessions of Carthage embraced the Balearic Isles, Corsica, Sardinia and the smaller islands in the Mediterranean, the southern portions of Sicily and Spain, some settlements on the western coast of Africa, and the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic, supposed to be the Canaries and the fertile Madeira.

HEN Queen Dido and the aristocratic party fled from Tyre to escape the tyranny of the queen's brother Pygmalion, they sailed for the coast of Northern Africa, in the modern Beylik of Tunis, upon which several flourishing Phonician colonies had already been established, such as Utica, Hadrumetum, Leptis and others. The Tyrian fugitives under Dido selected as the site for the new colony the head of a peninsula projecting eastward into the Gulf of Tunis, on the tenth meridian of longitude, and joined with the mainland by an isthmus three miles wide. Here were several excellent land-locked harbors, a position easily defended, and a fairly fertile soil. The settlement was made with the good will of the natives, who understood the benefits of commerce, and willingly gave the new colonies a part of the soil at a certain specified rent. Thus Carthage was founded B. C. 869.

The growth of Carthage was slow, but gradually it grew into importance; and

within one or two centuries from the date of her foundation Carthage had become a considerable power, far outstripping all the other Phoenician colonies in that region, and had acquired a rich and extensive dominion. The native tribes in the vicinity of the new city, who had originally been nomads, were induced to adopt agricultural pursuits. Carthaginian colonies were thickly planted among them, intermarriages between the colonists and the natives were encouraged, and a mixed population arose in the fertile tract south and south-west of Carthage, known as Liby-Phoenices, and these adopted the language and habits of the settlers and became faithful and attached subjects. Beyond this occupied territory Carthaginian influence was extended over numerous pure African tribes, most of which were nomads, while a few were agricultural. The tribes were held in loose and nominal subjection, as are the Arab tribes of modern Algeria by the French; but they were still considered Carthaginian subjects, and doubtless contributed to the resources of Carthage.

The proper territory of Carthage was regarded as extending southward to Lake Triton, and westward to the river Tusca, which separated Zeugitána from Numidia, thus almost corresponding to the modern Beylik of Tunis. From this compact and valuable territory the Carthaginians proceeded to extend their supremacy or influence over all Northern Africa from the Cyrenaica (the modern Barca) on the east to the Atlantic on the west; and their authority came to be gradually acknowledged by all the coast tribes between the Tusca and the Pillars of Hercules, and also by the numerous nomad races between Lake Triton and Cyrenaica. the former region numerous Carthaginian settlements were made, while Carthage claimed and exercised the right to march troops along the shore. From the latter tract only commercial advantages were obtained, but these were very important.

In

We have already observed that the Phonicians had established numerous settlements on the northern coast of Africa long before the founding of Carthage, but Carthage soon eclipsed all these in power and importance. Utica, Hadrumetum, Leptis Magna and other cities were at first independent Phoenician colonies, as free of the authority of Carthage as she was of their dominion. But by degrees Carthage extended her sway over these cities. Yet to the very last Utica and several others of these Phoenician communities maintained a certain degree of independence, being only members of a confederacy under the leadership of Carthage. These confederates of Carthage were unable to resist her, or to exercise much check upon her policy, but she was not absolute mistress upon all places within her territory.

Carthage even extended her dominion beyond the limits of Northern Africa. She established her influence in the West of Sicily at an early date, and superseded the more ancient influence of Phoenicia in that island. The Carthaginians conquered Sardinia near the end of the sixth century before Christ, after long and sanguinary wars. They had already occupied the Balearic

Isles-Majorca, Minorca and Ivica. They subsequently made settlements in Corsica and in Spain, and subjugated the smaller islands of Malta, Gaulos (now Gozo) and Cercina in the Mediterranean, and those of Madeira and the Canaries in the Atlantic. By the end of the sixth century before Christ, Carthage had extended her power from the Greater Syrtis on the east to the Fortunate Isles (the Canaries) on the coast, and from Corsica on the north to the Atlas mountain chain on the south.

The great commercial city effected her extensive conquests by the employment of foreign mercenaries. Besides the disciplined force which Carthage obtained from her own native citizens and from the mixed race of Liby-Phoenices, and besides the irregular troops which she drew from her other subjects, she employed large bodies of hired troops, derived partly from the independent African nations, such as the Numidians and the Mauritanians, and partly from the warlike European races brought into contact with her by her foreign trade, such as the Iberians of Spain, the Gauls of Gaul (now France), and the Ligurians of Northern Italy. We have evidence that this practice existed as early as the year B. C. 480, and there are abundant reasons for believing that it began at a considerably earlier period.

The naval power of Carthage must have dated from the very founding of the city. As the sea in ancient times swarmed with pirates, an extensive commerce required the possession of a powerful navy to protect it.

For several centuries Carthage must have been undisputed mistress of the Western Mediterranean. The officers and sailors in her fleets were mainly native Carthaginians, while the rowers were principally slaves, bred or bought by the state for the purpose.

Carthage was an aristocratic republic, and its constitution vested the political power in a privileged class. The native element, located at Carthage, or in its immediate vicinity, were the ruling element, and virtually governed all the rest of the Carthaginian dominion. This native element itself

as

to wealth. The two Suffetes, who stood at the head of the state, were chosen only from certain families, but all native Carthaginians were eligible to all other offices. Still, no office was salaried, the poor man could not afford to serve the state in any civil or political capacity, and thus the offices virtually fell into the hands of the rich. Public opinion was likewise strongly on the side of wealth. Candidates for office were expected to expend large sums of money in treating on the most extensive scale, if not in actual bribery. Thus office and political power practically became the heritage of a circle of wealthy families.

At the head of the state were two Suffetes, or Judges, who, in early times, were Captainsgeneral, as well as civil chief magistrates, but whose offices by degrees came to be regarded as only civil and not military. These Suffetes were chosen by the citizens from certain wealthy families, perhaps for life. Next to these magistrates was the Council, consisting of several hundred men, and from this body almost all the officers of the government were appointed, either directly or indirectly—as the Senate of One Hundred, a select committee of the Council, which directed all its proceedings; and the Pentarchies, commissions of five members each, which managed the different departments of state and filled vacancies in the Senate. The Council of One Hundred Judges (or with the two Suffetes and the two High Priests, 104), a high court of judicature chosen by the people, was the most popular element in the constitution of Carthage; but the members of the court were virtually selected from the upper classes, and their power was rather employed to check the excessive ambition of individul members of the aristocracy than to enlarge the civil rights or improve the social condition of the masses. The people were contented, however, as they elected the Suffetes under certain limitations, and usually, freely. The people The people may have filled vacancies in the Great Council; and when the Suffetes and the Council disagreed on public measures the people dis

was final. Questions of peace or war were frequently brought before them, though not necessarily so. The aristocratical features of the constitution were upheld by the weight of popular sentiment, which favored the vesting of political power in the hands of the rich. The openings which trade gave to enterprise enabled any one to become rich, and abject poverty was scarcely known, because as soon as it made an appearance it was relieved by the planting of colonies and the allotment of waste lands to all such as applied for them.

It was necessary for Carthage to have a large and secure revenue, since her power mainly depended upon her maintenance of vast armies of foreign mercenaries. This revenue was partly drawn from state property, especially rich mines in Spain and elsewhere; partly from the tribute which was paid by the confederated cities, such as Utica, Hadrumetum and others, as well as by the Liby-Phoenices, the dependent African nomads, and the provinces, such as Sardinia, Sicily, etc.; and partly from customs rigorously exacted from all the Carthaginian dominions. The tribute was the most elastic of all these sources of revenue, which was increased or diminished as the demands of the state required, and is reputed to have sometimes amounted to fifty per cent. on the income of those subject to it.

A curious kind of banking was established at Carthage. Pieces of a compound metal, the secret of whose composition was strictly preserved, so as to prevent forgery, were sewed up in leather coverings and marked with a government seal declaring the nominal value. This money was only current

in Carthage itself.

The religion of Carthage was that of her mother Tyre, and was therefore polluted by obscene rites and sanguinary human sacri. fices. But the Carthaginians also introduced foreign gods into their pantheon, as they adopted the worship of Ceres from the Sicilians, and sent embassadors to Greece to consult the oracle of Delphi. There does seem to have been a distinct priestly caste,

or even order, in Carthage, the sacerdotal functions being exercised by the magistrates. Diodorus informs us that in the temple of Saturn at Carthage the brazen image of the god stood with outstretched hands to receive the bodies of children offered to it. Mothers brought their infants in their arms; and as any indications of reluctance would have rendered the sacrifice unacceptable to the image, they caressed them to keep them quiet until the moment when they were handed over to the image, which was contrived so as to consign whatever it received

to a fiery furnace beneath it. Inscriptions have been discovered at Carthage recording the offering of such sacrifices. They continued after the Roman conquest of Carthage, until the Roman Proconsul Tiberius suppressed these bloody rites by hanging the priests who conducted them on the trees of their own sacred grove. Thenceforth the public exhibitions of the sacrifice ceased, but they continued in secret to the time of Tertullian, in the third century of the Christian era. In the history of Phoenicia we have given accounts of these sacrifices.

HE commerce of Carthage ex-
tended in the north as far as
Cornwall in Britain and the
Scilly Isles, in the east to Phoe-

nicia, in the west to Madeira

and the Canaries, in the south by sea to the coast of Guinea, and by caravans across the Great Desert to Fezzan and to Central Africa. Carthage obtained the commodities that she needed mainly by trade, exchanging for them her own manufactures, such as textile fabrics, hardware, pottery, personal ornaments, harness for horses, tools, etc. But it was likewise to a great extent a carrying trade, by which Carthage enabled the nations of Western Europe, Western Asia and Central Africa respectively to obtain each other's products. Carthaginian commerce was partly a sea and partly a land traffic. By sea this commerce was mainly with her mother Tyre, with her own colonies, with the nations along the Western Mediterranean, with the tribes along the Alantic coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules to the coast of Guinea, and with the savage Britons of Cornwall and the Scilly Isles. But while Carthaginian merchants scoured the sea in every direction in their trading ships, caravans directed by Carthaginian enterprise crossed the Great Desert and brought to Carthage from Central Africa the products of those remote

regions, such as gold-dust and negro slaves, while from the districts north of the desert were obtained dates and salt. Upper Egypt, Cyrêné, the oases of the Sahara, Fezzan, and probably Ethiopia and Bornou carried on this traffic with the famous commercial republic.

The principal commerce of the Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean was with the Greek colonies in Sicily and Southern Italy, from which they obtained wine and oil in exchange for negro slaves, precious stones and gold, procured from the interior of Africa, and also for cotton cloths manufactured at Carthage and in the island of Malta. From Corsica they procured honey, wax and slaves; from Sardinia, corn; from the Balearic Isles, the best breed of mules; from the Lipari Isles, resin, sulphur and pumice-stone; from Southern Spain, the precious metals. Beyond the Pillars of Hercules the Carthaginians superseded the Phoenicians in the tin trade with the British Isles and the amber traffic with the nations along the Baltic. On the western coast of Africa, Carthaginian colonies lined the shores of the present Morocco and Fez, but their chief mart in this region was the island of Cerne, now Suána, in the Atlantic Ocean, which was the great depot of merchandise, and from which goods were transported in light barks to the opposite coast, where they