mile; and the same toll is paid for 1000 feet boards.-Conestoga navigation, 18 miles in length, with a lockage of 70 feet, passes from Safe Harbor, on Susquehanna river, at the mouth of Conestoga creek, up the course of the creek, to Lancaster. The navigation is effected by a series of locks and dams, the pools never affording less than 4 feet depth of water; the locks are 100 feet by 22, in the chambers; the towing-path is on the south side of the river. Cost, $4,000 per mile. The company were incorporated in 1825; they are authorized to receive to the amount of 15 per cent. on the sum expended, and the legislature may regulate the rate of tolls, provided they do not reduce them below that rate.-Conewago canal is 23 miles in length, with a lockage of 21 feet, and passes from the foot to the head of Conewago falls, west side of Susquehanna river, York County, Pennsylvania; and the same, east side, Dauphin county. Two dams, one of 200, the other of 500 feet, are connected with the works. There are 1 guard and 3 lift locks, each 110 feet long, by 18 wide.-Pennsylvania canal was commenced in 1826, by the state of Pennsylvania, and great progress has been made in constructing the different branches, and the work is now (1831) prosecuted with great activity. It includes a number of canals, running in different directions, and known by different names: it consists of five divisions:-1. The transverse division commences at Columbia, where the Philadelphia and Columbia rail-road terminates, and runs on the Susquehanna to Duncan's island, 44 miles, at the mouth of the Juniata, thence on the Juniata to Huntington, 89 miles; thence from Huntington to near Holidaysburg, 39 miles. The division of rail-way proposed from Holidaysburg to the head of the basin at Johnstown, is 37 miles; this road crosses the Alleghany, and at its lowest crossing-place is 1364 feet 7 inches above the basin at Holidaysburg, and 1141 above that of Johnstown. The canal then runs from Johnstown to Pittsburg, 1043 miles, down the Kiskimenitas and Alleghany. 2. The middle division is from the mouth of the Juniata up the Susquehanna to the boundary line of New York, 204 miles. 3. The West Branch division, from Northumberland, by canal, up the West Branch valley, on the east side of that river, to a dam above the mouth of the Bald Eagle creek, and thence, across the small peninsula there formed, to a dam on the Bald Eagle, near Dunnstown. Ascent, by 14 locks, 101 feet; distance, 684 miles. 4. The eastern

division is in the valley of the Delaware commencing at Bristol, 18 miles above Philadelphia, and running to Easton, 60 miles. From Easton it is to be continued, under the name of the Delaware canal, to meet the Delaware and Hudson canal, at Carpenter's point, 66 miles. Begun in 1827. 5. The western, or Ohio and lake Erie division, is to extend from the mouth of the Kiskimenitas up the Alleghany and French creeks, and thence to the town of Erie, uniting the Ohio and lake Erie, 213 miles.-French creek feeder runs from Bemis's mill, on French creek, along the eastern side, nine miles, down to a point opposite the Conneaught outlet, and thence passing across by an aqueduct westward 123 miles, to Conneaught lake, 214 miles.

Delaware and Maryland.-Chesapeake and Delaware canal was commenced in 1824, and opened for navigation in 1829. It is 13 miles long, 66 feet wide at the surface of the water, and 10 feet deep,being intended for sloop navigation between the river Delaware and Chesapeake bay. It leaves the Delaware 45 miles below Philadelphia, and passes across the peninsula to the Chesapeake. This canal has two tide and two lift locks, of 100 feet in length by 22 in breadth, within the chamber; it is navigable for vessels usually employed in the bay and coasting trade. At the eastern termination of the canal, at Delaware city, a harbor extends 500 feet along the shore, from which two piers, that distance apart, project 250 feet into the river, nearly opposite to Fort Delaware. Between the harbor and the canal, the Delaware tidelock opens the communication. In this canal is a deep cut of 34 miles, 76) feet in depth, at the place where the greatest excavation was made. The summit level is 12 feet above tide water.-Port Deposit canal is a public work of the state of Maryland, of 10 miles in length, from Port Deposit, on the east bank of the Susquehanna, along a line of rapids northward to the boundary line of Maryland and Pennsylvania.-Potomac river canals. At Little, or Lower Falls, three miles above Washington, is a canal 24 miles long; difference of level, 37 feet 1 inch, overcome by a series of 4 sets of locks, of solid masonry, 80 feet long, 12 wide. At Great Falls, nine miles above, is a canal 1200 yards long, lined with walls of stone; difference of level, 76 feet 9 inches, surmounted by 5 sets of locks, of solid masonry, 100 feet long, 10 to 14 wide; lifts from 10 to 18 feet. Both here and at Little Falls, the canal dimensions are 25 feet wide at surface, 20 at bottom, 4 feet deep. Canal

works, on a smaller scale, are constructed at Seneca falls, Shenandoah falls, House's falls. These works were executed by the Potomac company, incorporated, in 1784, by Maryland and Virginia; but they are to be surrendered to the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company.-Chesapeake and Ohio canal, commenced in 1828. The proposed length is 341 miles; the breadth, at the surface of the water, 60 to 80 feet; at the bottom, 50 feet; the depth of water, 6 to 7 feet. According to the plan of this canal, it will pass from tide-water of the Potomac river above Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, and terminate near Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania. The first 2 miles of this canal above Georgetown are 70 feet wide on the surface, and 7 feet deep; the next 2 miles are 80 feet wide, 6 feet deep. Five miles from Georgetown, the canal is so planned that a branch may be constructed to Alexandria, another to Baltimore, and another to the navy-yard in Washington. The remaining distance to the Point of Rocks (44 miles), is to be 60 feet wide, 6 deep. The locks are to be of stone, 100 feet by 15 feet in the clear. The eastern section of this canal, from one mile below Cumberland to tide-water at Georgetown, is 186 miles 1353 yards; descent, 638 feet. The middle section is from Cumberland to the mouth of Casselman's river, 70 miles 1010 yards; this section includes the summit level, where a tunnel, 4 miles 80 yards long, passing under a ridge of the Alleghany of 856 feet elevation, is necessary, with a deep cut of 1060 yards long at the western end, and another deep cut of 140 yards at the eastern end, each of these cuts opening into a basin, of 880 yards in length and 64 in width. Length of summit level is 5 miles 1280 yards; lockage of the whole middle section is 1961 feet. The western section is from the mouth of Casselman's river to Pittsburg, 85 miles 348 yards, embracing a descent of 619 feet; lockage on the whole canal, 3215 feet. The first estimate of the cost was $22,375,000, but it is maintained that the cost will not exceed $10,000,000. The U. States have authorized a subscription of 1,000,000 dollars to the stock of this company. To be constructed by the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company. Charter granted by Virginia in 1824, confirmed by Maryland and congress in 1825. Tolls not to exceed 15 per cent. dividend. Ohio. The state of Ohio has commenced the construction of canals, as public works, on a very liberal scale.Ohio State canal, from Cleveland, on lake Erie, to the Ohio, at the mouth of the

Scioto; lockage, 1185 feet; length of the main line is 306 miles; feeders, 15 miles; total, 322 miles. Estimated expenses, $2,801,000. The route is from Portsmouth, on the Ohio (where it is 474 feet above tide level, and 94 below lake Erie), up the valley of the Scioto, to Pikestown; thence crossing the river to near Chillicothe; thence again crossing the river, it continues along the eastern bank to the Big Belly creek, where it receives a feeder, 10 miles long, from the Scioto at Columbus; it then passes up the valley of Walnut creek to the Licking and Walnut creek summit, between the head waters of those streams. From the summit it continues down the valley of Licking creek to Rocky Fork, and thence across the valley to the Tomaka, and down it to near its junction with the Muskingum. From this point the ascent commences, and the line passes up the Muskingum valley to White Woman's creek; crossing this, it proceeds up the valley of the Tuscarawas Fork, first on the western, then on the eastern bank, to a point where its two head waters unite near the south-west angle of Portage county. This is the centre of the Portage summit, extending 10 miles. From the north of the Portage or Akron summit (499 feet above the Ohio at Portsmouth, 973 feet above the Atlantic, 405 above lake Erie), it passes down the Cuyahoga valley, first on the west, afterward on the cast side of the river, to within 6 miles of the mouth at Cleveland, for which 6 miles the river channel with a towing-path is to be used.-Miami canal, 40 feet wide at the surface, and 4 feet in depth, from Cincinnati on the Ohio to the Maumee, near the head of lake Erie, was commenced in 1825. Length of main line, 265 miles; feeders, 25 miles; total, 290; lockage, 889; estimated expense, $2,929,957. The entire line from Cincinnati to Dayton is (1831) completed. This division embraces 22 locks; ascent from the Ohio, at low water, 108 feet; length of canal, 65; feeders, 2; total, 67 miles; cost, $746,852. From Dayton the line is to be extended to lake Erie. The summit level, commencing 18 miles north of Dayton, extends 60 miles within a single lock; and this level, together with 75 miles of the line north of it, must receive all its waters from feeders from the Mad and Miami rivers. To aid the state in extending this canal to lake Erie, there is assigned by congress, of the public lands which the same shall pass through, a quantity equal to one half of five sections in width, on each side of the canal, between Dayton and the Mau

mee river, at the mouth of the Auglaise, the U. States reserving each alternate section; provided this extension be commenced within five years from May, 1828, and finished within twenty; the canal to be a highway for the U. States, free from toll.

Virginia and North Carolina.-Appomattor river canals. These canals are for the purpose of improving the navigation of the Upper and Lower Appomattox. -James river canals. The river is navigable, for vessels of 125 tons burthen, to a Little below Richmond. At the city, there are 12 locks, overcoming an ascent of 80 feet, and connecting the tide water with a basin on Shockoe hill. From this basin proceeds a canal, 25 feet wide, 3 deep, for 24 miles, where it enters the stream; at 3 miles farther are 3 locks, overcoming an ascent of 34 feet, and a short canal leading to Westham, at the upper end of Great Falls.-James and Jackson river canal and navigation, from Richmond basin, by canal, up the James river valley, to the head of Maiden Adventure's falls, Goochland county. Distance, 30 miles; width of canal, 40 feet; depth, 3; finished in 1825; cost, $623,295. Also from the lower end of Irish falls, or Piney island, by canal, along the margin of James river to the mouth of North Branch, in Rockland county. Distance, 7 miles. The fall is overcome by lockage 96 feet; cost, $340,000.-Shenandoah canals, for the improvement of the Shenandoah. They are situated near Port Republic. A fall of 50 feet is overcome by six short canals with stone locks.-Dismal Swamp canal is 22 miles in length, 40 feet wide and 6 deep, passes from Deep creek to Joyce's creek, at the head of Pasquotank river, connecting the waters of the Chesapeake and Albemarle sound; partly in Virginia and partly in North Carolina. This canal was finished, upon a circumscribed plan, in 1822. Its dimensions have since been enlarged. Every quarter of a mile, the canal is widened 60 feet, for turn-out stations. The locks newly constructed correspond in dimensions with those of the Chesapeake and Delaware canal; and the old ones may be so altered when necessary. The summit level is 16 feet above the Atlantic at mid-tide, and is supplied by a feeder of five miles, from lake Drummond. The basin, at Deep creek, is half a mile in length, and 15 feet above the level of tide water. The North-west canal connects North-west river (which empties into Currituck sound in North Carolina) with the main canal, requiring a cut of

6 miles. This canal is 24 feet wide, 4 feet deep.-Weldon canal is 12 miles in length, along the Weldon or Great Falls in Roanoke river, in which distance the river descends 100 feet.-Danville and Dan river canals are a series of improvements on the upper branches of Roanoke river. The expenditure of the Roanoke navigation company, for these purposes, has been about $350,000.-Cape Fear river canals, from New Inlet, at Smith's island, at the mouth of Cape Fear river, up the stream to Wilmington, and thence, by a course of lock and dam improvements, up to the head thereof, formed by the union of Deep and Haw rivers, below Haywoodsborough in Chatham county; distance, 200 miles. These canals, &c., are for the purpose of improving the navigation of the river. This work is prosecuting by the state of North Carolina.Wateree river and Catawba river canals, from the confluence of the Congaree and Wateree rivers, up the course of the latter, as also of the Catawba river, across North Carolina, to near the source thereof. Distance, by the river channel improvements and lateral canals together, 275 miles.— Santee, Columbia and Saluda canals, from Columbia, through the Columbia canal, into Broad river, and through the Saluda canal, from Broad into Saluda river, up which and through Drehr and Lorick's canals, on to the Abbeville county line, near Cambridge; also from Santee river, by the Santee canal, into Cooper's river, and down this river to the port of Charleston. Distance, by mixed navigation, 150 miles. These comprise five canals, with 28 locks, overcoming falls of 217 feet. The Santee and Cooper's river canal is 22 miles long, uniting Santee river to the head of Cooper's river. The ground rises, by an ascent of 35 feet, to the summit level, by four locks. Towards Cooper's river, the descent is 68 feet, overcome by nine locks. The locks are 60 feet long by 10 feet wide. The canal is 32 feet wide at top, and 20 feet at the bottom; 4 feet deep. It was completed in 1802, at an expense of $650,667.

Winyaw canal is 10 miles in length. It unites the Santee river with Winyaw bay.

Kentucky.-Louisville and Portland canal is about two miles in length, 50 feet wide at the bottom, with a lockage of 224 feet. It is not fully completed in 1831. It passes from the Ohio, at Louisville, to a point of the same below the rapids, near Portland. Distance, by the bend of the river, three miles; constructed by the Louisville and Portland canal company, which

was incorporated in 1825. The canal is for the passage of large vessels. It commences from the lower end of a basin or estuary, which extends along the shore of the river for the whole length of Louisville, and is connected with the river at its upper end. From the lower part of this basin, the canal traverses the point formed by the bend of the river at the falls, and reënters the river at Shippingsport. The bottom is to be 50 feet wide, sunk four feet below the level of the basin at Louisville, at time of low water; the banks to be elevated 2 feet above the highest water mark known at Louisville, which makes 42 feet from the bottom of the canal, and to be sloped as 13 base to 1, so far as respects the upper or earthen portion; underneath there is a solid bed of stone for a foundation, the whole length of the canal, and this is to be cut perpendicularly, to the requisite depth, varying from 1 to 10 feet; the slope above which, to the top of each bank, is to be faced with stone. There are to be 3 lift-locks, of 7 feet lift each, and a guard-lock at the lower end of the canal; dimensions, 190 feet long by 50 feet wide, in the chamber. The U. States have contributed towards this important work.

Georgia.-Savannah and Ogatchee canal is 16 miles in length, 33 feet wide at the bottom, and 5 feet in depth, passing from Savannah river, commencing at Savannah, to the Ogatchee river; lockage, 29 feet; estimate of cost, $162,276; locks to be 18 feet wide, 90 long. This is to be continued from the Ogatchee to the Alatamaha.

Louisiana.-New Orleans and Teche river canal is a projected and partly executed navigation, of 100 miles in length, from a point on the Mississippi, opposite New Orleans, to the waters which unite with the Teche river, at Berwick's bay. A portion of this canal, from Lafourche to Terrebonne, has been (1831) nearly completed by individual enterprise.-Carondelet canal is 13 miles long, 30 feet wide, and 4 feet deep, and extends from bayou St. John to a basin in the rear of the city of New Orleans. This canal is without locks. Through it the tide flows into the basin.-Lafourche canal passes from the river Lafourche, 16 miles below its efflux from the Mississippi. It is opened from the right bank into a small creek, uniting with lake Verret. It is through this channel, at high water, that boats are taken to and from the lower part of Attacapas into the Mississippi, or from the latter stream; navigable only in times of high

flood.-Plaquemine canal passes from the Mississippi into bayou Plaquemine, at its efflux from the Mississippi. The mouth of the Plaquemine is closed by a raft of timber, and the canal (a short cut of about 400 yards) was made across the point, below the bayou. It is only navigable in times of high flood.

INN, a river in the south of Germany, rises in the Grisons, flows through Tyrol and Bavaria, and empties into the Danube at Passau. It is navigable from Telfs. Innspruck (q. v.) is situated on this river.

INNATE IDEAS; certain primary notions, or impressions, supposed by many philosophers to be given to the mind of man when it first receives its being, and to be brought into the world with it. Their existence has afforded ground for much dispute among philosophers.

INNOCENT; the name of thirteen popes, among whom are the following:-Innocent I, saint, a native of Albano, succeeded Anastasius I as bishop of Rome, in 402. He was in great favor with the emperor Honorius, and induced him to take severe measures against the Donatists. He supported St. Chrysostom (q. v.), and renounced the communion with the Eastern churches, on account of their treatment of that eminent man. In 409, he was sent to obtain terms of peace from Alaric, but without success, in consequence of the opposition of the pretorian prefect Jovius. (q. v.) Rome was taken and pillaged, in 410, while Innocent was still in Ravenna. He condemned the Pelagians as heretics, in a letter to the African churches, but excited their opposition by his arrogant tone. He died in 417; according to some, in 416. He is one of the most distinguished among the saints; his day is July 28. His decrees (in the Collection of Dionysius Exiginus) and letters (most complete in Schỏnemann's Pontif. Rom. Epist. genuine) prove his zeal for the establishment of the Roman supremacy; but part of them are considered, by many critics, spurious. Zosimus was his successor.-Innocent II ; a

Roman of noble birth, elected pope, in 1130, by a part of the cardinals, whilst the others elected Peter of Leon, who took the name of Anacletus. Innocent fled to France, where, by the mediation of Peter of Clairvaux, he was acknowledged by the council of Etampes, by Louis VI, and, soon after, by Henry II of England, also by the German king Lothaire, who conducted him, in 1133, to Rome, where he occupied the Lateran, whilst Anacletus occupied the castle of Crescentius, the church of St. Peter, and a large part of

the city. Innocent was soon obliged to retire to Pisa, and, though the emperor reinstated him, in 1137, Anacletus maintained himself until his death, in 1138. Having prevailed against another anti-pope, he held the second œcumenical council in the Lateran, where nearly 1000 bishops condemned Arnold of Brescia and his heresy, declared all the decrees of Anacletus null, and excommunicated Roger of Sicily, who had supported the latter. But Roger waged war against the pope, made him prisoner, and obliged Innocent to acknowledge him as king, absolve him from excommunication, and invest him and his heirs with Apulia, Calabria and Capua. Towards the end of his pontificate, he put France under an interdict, and had to struggle with constant disturbances in Rome and Tivoli. He died in 1143. Celestine II succeeded him. His letters are to be found in Baluze, Martène and others.-Innocent III, Lothaire, count of Segni, born at Anagni, in 1161, studied in Rome, Padua and Bologna. On the death of Celestine III (1198) cardinal John of Salerno declined the pontificate, which had been offered to him, and proposed Lothaire, who was unanimously elected, at the age of 37. The death of the emperor Henry VI, in 1197, had thrown the imperial affairs in Italy into the greatest confusion. Innocent, in the vigor of manhood, endowed by nature with all the talents of a ruler, possessed of an erudition uncommon at that time, and favored by circumstances, was better qualified than any of his predecessors to elevate the papal power, which he considered as the source of all secular power. By his clemency and prudence, he gained over the inhabitants of Rome, obliged the imperial prefect to take the oath of allegiance to him, and directed his attention to every quarter where he believed, or pretended to believe, that a papal claim of property, or of feudal rights, existed. From the imperial seneschal, duke Marquard of Romagna, he required homage for the Mark of Ancona, and, on his refusal to comply, took possession of the Mark, with the assistance of the inhabitants, who were dissatisfied with the imperial government, and excommunicated Marquard; obliged the duke Conrad of Spoleto to resign that duchy, and would also have taken Ravenna, if the archbishop had not prevented him. He concluded treaties with many cities of Tuscany for the mutual protection of their liberties and those of the church. Thus he soon obtained possession of the ecclesiastical states, in 3

VOL. VII.

their widest extent. He conferred Naples on the widowed empress Constantia and her minor son, afterwards the emperor Frederic II, after having abolished all the privileges conceded by Adrian IV, in 1156, assumed the guardianship of the young prince, after the decease of the empress, and frustrated all the machinations of Marquard to deprive him of his inheritance. In Germany, Innocent favored the election of Otho IV against Philip of Suabia, crowned him, in 1209, at Rome, but soon became involved in disputes with him, on account of his violations of the promises which he had made to the church. He excommunicated Philip Augustus, king of France, laid the kingdom under an interdict, in 1200, because Philip had repudiated his wife, Ingelburge, and obliged the king to submit. He was still more decided in his treatment of John (q. v.), king of England, who refused to confirm the election of Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury. Innocent laid the kingdom under an interdict, and, in 1212, formally deposed him, and instigated the king of France to attack England. John was finally obliged to submit, resigned his territories to Rome, and received them, as a papal fief, from Innocent, from whom he was unable to obtain absolution until he had paid large sums of money. Almost all Christendom was now subject to the pope; two crusades were undertaken at his order, and his influence extended even to Constantinople. Innocent was one of the greatest of popes and rulers; he acted in accordance with the principles laid down in his writings; he enforced purity of morals in the clergy, and was himself irreproachable in private life; yet the cruel persecution of the Albigenses in the south of France, which he encouraged, though without approving of all its rigors, and the inquisitorial tribunals established by him in 1198, from which the inquisition itself originated, are stains on his pontificate, but partially effaced by a consideration of the spirit of the times and the disordered state of the Christian world. It may be said of his rule, as of that of Gregory VII, whom he most resembles, that, in those times, the power of the pope was salutary, as a bond of union for Europe, in which the still firmer bond of a common civilization and knowledge did not, as at present, exist. His attacks on the secular power are to be considered as the struggle between the ecclesiastical and secular power, which was natural and necessary in the developement of European civilization. If he had not subdued