PARENT AND CHILD

funds, are also not bound. It is true that if the parent die intestate both the real and personal property will go to the children; but the parent is entitled, if he choose, to disinherit the children, and give away all his property to strangers, provided he execute his will in due form, which he may competently do on death-bed if in possession of his faculties.

A father has the right to the custody of his child until majority at least, as against third parties, and no court will deprive him of such custody except on strong grounds. Whenever the child is entitled to property, the court so far controls the parental right that, if the father is shown to act with cruelty, or to be guilty of immorality, a guardian will be appointed. The court has often to decide in cases of children brought before it by habeas corpus, when parties have had the custody against the father's will. In such cases, if the child is under fourteen, called the age of nurture, and the father is not shown to be cruel or immoral, the court will order the child to be delivered up to him; but if the child is above fourteen, or, as some say, above sixteen, the court will allow the child to choose where to go. If the parents separate by agreement, no stipulation will be enforced which is prejudicial to the child. In case of divorce or judicial separation the Court of Divorce has power to direct who is to have the custody of the children. The law lays upon fathers the duty of providing their children with an elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic; and a father has the right, which the court will not interfere with except on special grounds, to have his children educated in his own religious faith.

Scotland. The law of parent and child in Scotland differs in some respects from the law of England and Ireland. In Scotland there is a legal obligation on parents and children to maintain each other if able to do so, and either may sue the other for aliment at common law; but this obligation extends only to what may be called subsistence money, although this does not mean merely relief of the poor-law authorities, but is held to vary according to the social position of the party. As regards all maintenance beyond mere subsistence, the law does not materially differ from that of England, and a contract must be proved against the father before he can be held liable to pay. The legal liability as between parent and child is qualified in this way by the common law, that if a person has both a father and a child living and able to support him, then the child is primarily liable, and next the grandchild, after whom comes the father, and next the grandfather. Not only are parent and child liable to support each other while the party supporting is alive, but if he dies his executors are also liable; and this liability is not limited by the age of majority, but continues during the life of the party supported. Another advantage which a Scotch child has over an English child is that the father cannot disinherit it-at least so far as concerns his movable property (see LEGITIM). With regard to the custody of children in Scotland, the rule is that the father is entitled to the custody as between him and the mother. His right, however, is not absolute, but subject to the equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Session, which makes such orders regarding custody as are dictated by a regard for the health, interests, and moral education of the child. In actions for separation or divorce this court has power to make such orders as are just and proper regarding the custody of the children of the spouses.

By the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1886, increased rights were given to the mothers of lawful children both in England and Scotland. The general effect of the enactment is to place the

mother of children whose father is dead in a similar position to that which the father would have occupied had he been alive in regard to the guar | dianship.

United States.-The American law closely follows that of England on this head, save in regard to the age (usually eighteen) at which women cease to be infants. See INFANT, AGE.

Parhelion. See HALOS.

Pariahs is the Tamil name now generally given to the lowest class of the Hindu population of Southern India-the 'out-castes' who do not belong to any of the four castes of the Brahminical system (the Telugu name is Mala, the Kanarese Holia, the Malayalim Paliyar). In the Madras Presidency they numbered, in 1881, 4,439,253, or 15:58 per cent. of the total population, or four times as numerous as the Brahmans. Presumably they represent the aboriginal race conquered by the Sudras, themselves a stock vanquished by the Vedic peoples. In the 18th century Pariahs were slaves to the higher castes; they must still dwell in huts outside village bounds, but are frugal, See CASTE.-For pleasure-loving, and laborious. the Pariah Dog, see DOG.

Paris

Paris, the capital of France, and the largest city in Europe after London, is situated in 48° 50′ N. lat. and 2° 20' E. long., on the river Seine, about 110 miles from its mouth. It lies in the midst of the fertile plain of the Île-de-France, at a point to which converge the chief tributaries of the river, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Oise. These streams, navigable for the small vessels formerly used in commerce, gave it until recent times the advantages of a seaport, while the great traderoutes passing along their valleys connected it with all parts of France. It is still the centre of a great network of rivers, canals, roads, and railways; hence its commercial importance. has occupied since Roman times a constantly increasing series of concentric circles. The present city is bounded by fortifications-a rampart upwards of 22 miles in length, begun in 1840 and completed twenty years afterwards. The extension of the city boundary to this line explains the increase of population from 1,174,346 in 1856 to 1,696,741 in 1861; subsequent pop. (1866) 1,825,274; (1881) 2,269,023; and (1886) 2,256,050. Paris has within the fortifications a mean elevation of about 120 feet, but it rises in low hills north of the Seine, Montmartre (400 feet) and Belleville (320 feet), and south of the Seine, the Montagne Sainte Geneviève (190 feet). These elevations are encircled at a distance of from two to five miles by an outer range of heights, including Villejuif, Meudon, St Cloud, and MontValérien (650 feet), the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the city. The Seine, which enters Paris in the south-east at Bercy, and leaves it at Passy in the west, divides the city into two parts, and forms the two islands of La Cité and St Louis, which are both covered with buildings.

France has long been the most highly centralised country in Europe, and Paris as its heart contains a great population of government functionaries. Paris is a city of pleasure, and attracts the wealthy from all parts of the world. These wealthy inhabitants make it a city of capitalists and a great financial centre. The provincial universities of France have been deprived of their attraction by the schools of Paris, to which flock the youth of France. The publishing trade has followed the same course. Paris cannot be described as a manufacturing town. Its chief and peculiar industries produce articles which derive their value not from the cost of the material,

but from the skill and taste bestowed on them by individual workmen. They include jewellery, bronzes, artistic furniture, and decorative articles known as 'articles de Paris.' In consequence of the intelligence and taste required in their trades, the Paris workmen are in many respects superior to the machine hands of manufacturing cities. The absence of extreme poverty among them and their well-to-do appearance strike the English visitor.

Before speaking in detail of the streets, boulevards, and places or squares of Paris, it is proper to mention that the private houses as well as the

public buildings are built of a light-coloured limestone, quarried in the neighbourhood of the city, easily cut with the saw and carved ornamentally with the chisel. With this material they are reared in huge blocks to a height of six or seven stories, each floor constituting a distinct dwelling; access to all the floors in a tenement being gained by a common stair, which is usually placed under the charge of a porter or concierge at the entrance. Very frequently the tenements surround an open quadrangle, to which there is a spacious entry, the gate of which (the porte cochère)

is kept by a porter for the whole inhabitants of the several stairs. In these respects, therefore, Paris differs entirely from London; for instead of extending rows of small brick buildings of a temporary kind over vast spaces, the plan consists of piling durable houses on the top of each other, and confining the population to a comparatively limited area. In the great new streets which were formed in the time of the Emperor Napoleon III. this general plan has been adhered to, but with this difference, that instead of being narrow and crooked they are wide and straight. Among the finest are the Rue de Rivoli, two miles in length, the Rue de la Paix, the Rue du Faubourg St Honoré, and the Rue Royale. The Boulevards, which extend in a semicircular line on the right side of the Seine, between the nucleus of the city and its surrounding quarters, present the most striking feature of Paris life. In all the better parts of the city they are lined with trees, seats, stalls, kiosques, and little towers, covered with advertisements. Restaurants, cafés, shops, and

various places of amusement succeed one another for miles, their character varying from the height of luxury and elegance in the western Boulevard des Italiens to the homely simplicity of the eastern Boulevards Beaumarchais and St Denis. Among the public squares or places the most noteworthy is the Place de la Concorde, which connects the Gardens of the Tuileries with the Champs-Elysées, and embraces a magnificent view of some of the finest buildings and gardens of Paris. In the centre is the famous obelisk of Luxor, covered over its entire height of 73 feet with hieroglyphics. It was brought from Egypt to France, and in 1836 placed where it now stands. On the site of this obelisk stood the revolutionary guillotine, at which perished Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, Philippe Egalité, Charlotte Corday, Danton, and Robespierre. of the other squares the following are some of the finest: the Place du Carrousel, including the site of the Tuileries burned by the Commune and not restored; the Place Vendôme, with Napoleon's Column of Victory; the Place de la Bastille, where once stood

rich decorations and the frescoed portal, restored at the wish of Margaret of Valois. Among modern churches is the Madeleine (1806-42), built in the style of a Corinthian temple, and originally intended by Napoleon I. to be a monument to the Grande Armée. It forms an oblong building, 328 feet long by 138 wide, independently of the flights of steps. The height of the columns is 62 feet, that of the entablature 14 feet, and the entire height from the ground 116 feet. There are in all fifty-two columns. The roof is of iron and copper. The interior is elaborately decorated with gold, white marble, paintings, and sculptures; but in spite of their religious subjects the building still produces on northern eyes the impression of a pagan temple rather than of a Christian church. The Panthéon (1764) was begun as a church, but converted by the Constituent Assembly of republican France into a temple dedicated to the great men of the nation, next restored to the church by Napoleon III. and rededicated to St Geneviève, but once more, on the occasion of the funeral of Victor Hugo (1885), reconverted into a monument, with the old inscription Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaisante.' The Panthéon has been spoken of as rivalling St Peter's at Rome and St Paul's in London. The frescoes of the interior are very fine. In the crypt are the tombs of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Victor Hugo. Notre Dame de Lorette, erected in 1823, is a flagrant specimen of the meretricious taste of the day; and St Vincent de Paul, completed in 1844, is somewhat less gaudy and more imposing in style. Among the few Protestant churches, l'Oratoire is the largest and the best known. In front of it a beautiful monument to Coligny has been erected.

Paris abounds in places of amusement suited to the tastes and means of every class. It has upwards of forty theatres. The leading houses are the Opéra, the Théâtre Français-chiefly devoted to classical French drama-the Opera Comique, and the Odéon, which receive a subvention from government. The new opera-house, completed in 1875, is one of the most magnificent buildings of this century, costing, exclusive of the site, £1,120,000. Cheap concerts, equestrian performances, and public balls, held in the open air in summer, supply a constant round of gaiety to the burgher and working classes at a moderate cost, and form a characteristic feature of Paris life; while, in addition to the noble gardens of the various imperial palaces, the most densely-crowded parts of the city have public gardens, shaded by trees and adorned with fountains and statues, which afford the means of health and recreation to the poor. Beyond the fortifications at the west of Paris is the Bois de Boulogne, converted by Napoleon III. from a wood covered with stunted trees into one of the most beautiful gardens in Europe. It takes the place of the London parks for the fashionable world of Paris. East of Paris is the Bois de Vincennes, an admirable recreation ground for the working. classes.

Paris has three large and twelve lesser cemeteries, of which the principal one is Père-la-Chaise (see LACHAISE), extending over 200 acres, and filled in every part with monuments erected to the memory of the countless number of celebrated persons buried there. The Morgue (q.v.) at the upper end of the Île-de-la-Cité is a building in which the bodies of unknown persons found in the Seine are placed temporarily for recognition. The southern parts of Paris are built over beds of limestone, which have been so extensively quarried as to have become a network of vast caverns. These quarries were first converted in 1784 into catacombs, in which are deposited the bones of the dead, collected from the ancient cemeteries of Paris.

It has been frequently remarked that Paris contains few important civil buildings of the middle ages, which is to some extent due to the reckless way in which improvements have been carried out. What Paris has lost in picturesque interest and architectural variety from this cause was brought home to all by the large imitations of the Tour de Nesle and other buildings erected for the exhibition of 1889. A government commission now watches over the historic monuments of Paris, so that further destruction is checked. Two most interesting civil buildings of the 15th century still exist. One is the Hôtel de Cluny (see CLUGNY), one of the finest existing monuments of the Gothic Flamboyant style. The other is the Hôtel de Sens, the old palace of the archbishops of Sens, formerly metropolitans of Paris. It is unfortunately buried among narrow streets north of the Seine and opposite the Cité. In 1890 its most interesting part was advertised to let for business purposes. It had been last used as a sugar-refinery.

The Louvre, the greatest of the modern palaces of Paris, forming a square of 576 feet by 538 feet, was erected on the site of an old castle of the 13th century (see below). The first part, the southwest wing, was erected in 1541 on the plans of Pierre Lescault. It remains a masterpiece of architectural design and monumental sculpture. The principal portion of the great square was completed under Louis XIV. in the latter part of the 17th century, the physician Claud Perrault being the architect. The colonnade of the eastern façade is more admired than any other part of the building.

The Palace of the Tuileries was begun in 1566 by Catharine de Medicis, and enlarged by successive monarchs, while used as a royal residence, until it formed a structure nearly a quarter of a mile in length, running at right angles to the Seine. It was connected with the Louvre, which lay to the west, by a great picture-gallery overlooking the Seine, and 1456 feet in length. North of the picture-gallery, and between the two palaces, lay the Place du Carrousel, in the midst of the most magnificent palatial structure in the world. The Tuileries continued to be occupied as the residence of the imperial family; but the Louvre proper formed a series of great galleries filled with pictures, sculptures, and collections of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman antiquities. The Commune attempted to burn the whole pile, but only succeeded in destroying the Tuileries and a corner of the Louvre. The Place du Carrousel enclosed between them and the Louvre is now thrown into the great line of gardens stretching west to the Arc de l'Étoile. In the midst of the old palaces a statue of Gambetta, surrounded by allegorical figures, has been erected. North of the Louvre is the Palais Royal. It forms a mass of buildings, including the old palace of the Orleans family, the Théâtre Français, and a quadrangle of shops, restaurants, and cafés, enclosing a large park or garden open to the public, 700 feet long by 300 feet wide. With its avenues and parterres it was long one of the liveliest and most frequented spots in Paris. Its cafés had a world-wide reputation, which has faded, however, since the great improvements of Napoleon III. sent the current of life into other quarters. The most valuable part of the palace, fronting the Rue St Honoré, was set fire to by order of the Commune in 1871. The Palace of the Luxembourg, on the south side of the Seine, was built by Marie de Medicis in the Florentine style. It contains many magnificent rooms, and in 1879 became the meeting-place of the French senate. Close to it a gallery has been constructed for the reception of the works of living artists acquired by the state. On the north bank of the Seine, opposite the Island

of the Cité, stands the Hôtel de Ville. It was burned by the Commune, but has been rebuilt and restored in the style of its predecessor, and is now one of the finest buildings in Paris. On the Island of the Cité stands the Palais de Justice, a vast pile, also set fire to by the Commune; some parts of it date from the 14th century, and others are modern. It is the seat of some of the courts of law, as the Courts of Cassation, of Appeal, and of Police. Within the precincts of this palace are the Sainte Chapelle, and the noted old prison of the Conciergerie, in which Marie Antoinette, Danton, and Robespierre were successively confined.

The Conciergerie, just mentioned, in which prisoners are lodged pending their trial, constitutes one of the eight prisons of Paris, of which the principal is La Force. The Nouveau Bicêtre is designed for convicts sentenced to penal servitude for life; St Pélagie receives political offenders, St Lazare is exclusively for women, the Madelonnettes for juvenile criminals, and Clichy for debtors.

The number of benevolent institutions is enormous. The largest of the numerous hospices or almshouses is La Salpêtrière, probably the largest asylum in the world, extending over 78 acres of land, and appropriated solely to old women; Bicêtre receives only men. The Hospice des Enfans Trouvés, or Foundling Hospital (q.v.), provides for the infants brought to it till they reach the age of maturity, and only demands payment in the event of a child being reclaimed. The Crèches (q.v.) receive the infants of poor women for the day at the cost of 20 centimes. Besides institutions for the blind, deaf and dumb, convalescents, sick children, &c., Paris has many general and special hospitals. Of these the oldest and most noted are the Hôtel Dieu, La Charité, and La Pitié.

The chief institutions connected with the University of France, and with education generally, are still situated in the Quartier Latin. The Sorbonne (q.v.), the seat of the Paris faculties of letters, science, and Protestant theology, has been rebuilt and increased in size. The new building was opened in 1889, when it was announced that a complete reorganisation of the university system of France was contemplated (see UNIVERSITY). The Sorbonne contains lecture-halls and class-rooms, and an extensive library open to the public. There gratuitous lectures are given, and degrees are granted by the University of France. Near the Sorbonne is the Collége de France, where gratuitous lectures are also delivered by eminent scholars and men of letters, as well as a large number of colleges and lycées, the great public schools of France for secondary instruction. Most of them have been recently rebuilt, filling the Quartier Latin with huge barrack-like buildings. The Scotch College stands as it did in the 17th century, five stories high, with eleven windows in a row, a good specimen of the old Paris colleges. At present, owing to the war between the republic and the Roman Catholic Church, the schools of the latter are independent of the university, and there is no faculty of Roman Catholic theology at the Sorbonne. The Ecole Polytechnique, the School of Medicine and the School of Law, the Observatory, and the Jardin des Plantes, with its great museums of natural history, partly rebuilt on a grand scale and opened in 1889, fecture-rooms, and botanical and zoological gardens are situated in the same quarter of Paris. The principal of the public libraries are those of the Rue Richelieu, now called the Bibliothèque Nationale (see LIBRARY), which originated in a small collection of books placed by Louis XI. in the Louvre. It is rivalled only by the British Museum in the number of its books and manuscripts, but its usefulness is impaired by the want of a proper cata

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logue, which makes its treasures less accessible than they should be.

No city on this side of the Alps is richer than Paris in fine-art collections, and among these the museums at the Louvre stand pre-eminent. Among its chief treasures may be mentioned, in the museum of antique sculptures, the famous Venus of Milo, and in the Salon Carré the great works of the Italian, Flemish, and Spanish masters. It is impossible to do more than refer to the long succession of galleries in which are exhibited Egyptian, Assyrian, Elamitic, Greek, Roman, medieval, and Renaissance relics and works of art. The Musée Carnivalet or historical museum of the city of Paris has been specially devoted to the collection of everything interesting connected with the municipality. On the demolition of the old houses many objects were found which formed the nucleus of the collection, which is constantly receiving large additions which make it one of the most interesting of the Paris museums. The Palais des BeauxArts is used as an exhibition of art, manufac tures, and architectural models. The Hôtel de Cluny, connected underground with the Palais des Thermes, contains curious relics of the arts and usages of the French people, from the earliest ages of their history to the Renaissance period. The potteries, sculptures, paintings, arms, furniture, and tapestries of the middle ages and of the 16th and 17th centuries are of the highest historical interest and value. The Museum of Artillery at the Hôtel des Invalides is devoted to arms and armour, flags and war dresses. The Musée Guimet, or 'National Museum of Religions,' includes objects used in religious ceremonies, savage, Indian, Chinese, &c. The Mint deserves notice for the perfection of its machinery; and the Gobelins (q.v.), or tapestry manufactory, may be included under the fine arts, as the productions of its looms are all manual, and demand great artistic skill. The Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, in the Rue St Martin, contains a great collection of models of machinery, and class-rooms for the instruction of workmen in all departments of applied science. The great Paris exhibitions have all left behind them important buildings. The Palace of Industry, built in 1854, now forms a permanent exhibition. The spacious building in which the exhibition of 1878 took place was named Palace of the Trocadéro, and is now used for musical entertainments and as an architectural and ethnological

museum. For the exhibition of 1889 was erected one of the most striking monuments of modern Paris, the Eiffel (q.v.) Tower.

Paris was surrounded, under Louis-Philippe, with fortifications costing £5,500,000 sterling, and, in addition to these, a large number of detached forts have since been erected. The walls, 37,000 yards in length, are penetrated by sixty-nine openings, fifty-six for gates, nine for railways, two for the canals of St Denis and the Ourq. Through the two remaining breaks passes the Seine. At the gates are paid the octroi or town dues, a large source of revenue to the city of Paris. On the left bank of the Seine is the École Militaire, founded in 1752, and used as barracks for infantry and cavalry; it can accommodate 10,000 men and 800 horses. Near it is the Hôtel des Invalides, founded in 1670 for disabled soldiers. The crypt of the church contains the sarcophagus, hewn from a huge block of Russian granite, in which lie the remains of Napoleon, deposited there in 1840.

Paris is divided into twenty arrondissements. The prefect of the Seine is the chief of the municipal government, and is appointed by the government. There is a large municipal council, chosen. by popular election. Each arrondissement has a maire and two assistant-councillors. The prefect