produce a glossiness of surface. For writingpapers the paper passes through a shallow trough of size after leaving the drying cylinders, and then passes over another series of skeleton cylinders, with fans moving inside, by which it is again dried without heat, and afterwards passes through the calenders. Printing and other papers are usually sized by mixing the size in the pulp, in which stage the colouring materials such as ultramarine for the blue tint of foolscap-are also introduced. Still following the paper web in the drawing (fig. 1), it is seen to pass from the calenders to another machine, F; this slits the web into widths, which are again crosscut into sheets, the size of which is regulated at will. In the United States, for fine book-work, the paper receives a white coating after it has been made; it is the finish thus given to the surface that renders the illustrations seen in the best American magazines possible. The water mark is immachinepressed on made paper by means marker may act upon Fig. 1. Fig. 2. PULP AND SAVEALL PUMPS. raw material. It is difficult to determine with any precision the quantity of paper now made in the United Kingdom, as the manufacture is free from tax; but we may form a fair estimate by looking at the progress under the duty rate, and judging of the advance since from the increased exports and the stimulus now given to production. The following are official figures of the quantity of paper charged with duty before the abolition of the tax, which brought in £1,500,000. In 1842, 43,166 tons; 1852, 70,000 tons; 1861, 102,456 tons. In 1851 Mr Poole, in his Statistics of British Commerce, stated that there were then 437 papermills at work in the United Kingdom; 349 in England, 48 in Scotland, and 40 in Ireland. The weight of paper made amounted to 62,000 tons; the estimated value of which was £3,000,000. The number of mills in 1860 was 397; in 1870, 369. Mr W. Arnot, in his course of lectures on the 'Technology of the Paper Trade' before the Society of Arts in 1877, stated the number of paper-mills working in the United Kingdom at 385; of which 300 were in England, 65 in Scotland, and 20 in Ireland. The number of machines employed he gave at about 526, producing 350,000 tons of paper, which, with 10,000 tons of hand-made, gave a total production of 360,000 tons. This quantity he estimated to be worth £16,000,000 sterling. This is, however, far too high an estimate, having regard to the depreciated prices resulting from the fall in value since 1880. The 400,000 tons made at the present time cannot be valued at more than £12,000,000. Assuming the annual production of paper in the United Kingdom at present to be 400,000 tons, the home consumption is evidently large and progressive, for we only export in books and paper about 57,000 tons, while we import of writing and printing papers 15,000 tons. Newspapers, books, and periodical literature use up fully one-half of our total make. Schools and public offices and correspondence consume much of the remainder, leaving but little for wrapping, packing, and other purposes. Judging from the data adduced, the British paper-manufacture has more than quadrupled since the abolition of the paper-duty. The export trade of the United Kingdom in paper has been rapidly progressive, as the figures in the following table will show; the first of its two columns comprising writing-paper, printing paper, and envelopes; and the second all other kinds of paper. The average price of paper, which in 1874 was as high as £3, 2s. per cwt., has fallen as low as 30s. per cwt. The superiority of the British over the continental manufacture has obtained for Britain a steadily increasing business in the markets of Asia, South America, and her Colonies. In 1879 the value of the British paper of all kinds exported was £915,925; in 1889 it was £1,602,075, even at the much lower prices ruling. In 1889 was imported of paper and pasteboard of all kinds 2,110,000 cwt., an increase of 1 million cwt. over 1882. In the United States equal progress has been made in the paper-manufacture as in Great Britain. The first mill was established in 1690, on ground now included within Philadelphia. In 1770 there were forty paper-mills in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, and only three or four in New England. In 1840 there were in the United States but 426 paper-mills; in 1850, 443; and in 1860, 500, producing 60,000 tons; in 1872 there were 812 mills, owned by 705 firms, making 200,000 tons. At present, with over 1000 paper-mills having 3000 machines, the quantity made greatly exceeds that of the United Kingdom; the amount in some of the last years of the decade 1880-90 amounting to over 1,200,000 tons. In the other parts of America there are 85 paper-mills. In Asia there are 19 paper-mills, besides numerous vats; in Africa, 4500 mills in the world. The production of hand4; and in Australasia, 7; making a total of nearly made papers in China and Japan it is impossible to estimate. China has made great strides in her From about 75,000 exports of paper of all kinds. cwt. a few years ago the export advanced to 200,000 cwt. in 1887, valued at £304,000. The greater part of the paper now made in the world-at least threefourths is believed to be used for printing on, since the correspondence carried on in many countries out of Europe is comparatively small. There are works on paper and paper-making by Hofmann (New York, 1873), Munsell (New York, 1876). Davis (1886), and Cross and Bevan (1887). For old Archer (1876), Dunbar (1881), Parkinson (1886), C. T. water-marks dating from 1473, see Archæologia, vol. xii. For ancient paper-making, see Hirth, Chinesische Studien (1890), and Karabacek, Das Arabische Papier. WALLPAPER is the subject of a separate article. Paphlagonia, anciently a province of Asia Minor, extending along the southern shores of the Black Sea, from the Halys on the east to the Parthenius on the west (which separates it from Bithynia), and inland on the south to Galatia. Its limits, however, were somewhat different at different times, and it successively belonged to Lydia, Persia, and Rome. Its capital was Sinope. The Paphlagonians are supposed to have been of Syrian or Semitic origin, like the Cappadocians. Old Paphos, two ancient cities in Cyprus. Paphos (now Kyklia) was situated in the western part of the island, about 1 mile from the coast. It probably was founded by the Phoenicians, and was famous, even before Homer's time, for a temple of Venus, who was said to have here risen from the sea close by, whence her epithet Aphrodite, foamsprung, This was the home of the Paphian Venus,' and hither crowds of pilgrims used to come. The other Paphos (Papho or Baffa) was on the seacoast, about 8 miles west of the older city, and was the place in which the apostle Paul proclaimed the gospel before the proconsul Sergius. Papias, Bishop at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, in the earlier half of the 2d century, is known to us only from references by Irenæus, Eusebius, and a PAPIAS few others, and from fragments of his lost work The only work which he is known to have written But it is in relation to the New Testament canon, and especially to what is known as the synoptic problem, that Papias is of real importance. The fragment bearing on Mark runs thus: This also the elder (John) said: " Mark, having become the interpreter (recorder) of Peter, wrote down accurately whatever he remembered, without, however, recording in order what was either said or done by Christ,' ,""&c. Many scholars maintain that the words suit the second gospel as we have it, while others who deny this accept them as an account of its groundwork. Still greater interest attaches to the short fragment on Matthew: 'Matthew, then, composed the oracles in the Hebrew (Aramaic) language, and each one interThis statement has preted them as he could. often been called in question, but the best authorities now hold that Papias is correct as to the Aramaic original, and that the canonical gospel, while evidently not a translation, is a Greek edition, by either Matthew himself or some writer unknown. On the whole, the two-document hypothesis of the origin of the synoptics, which at present holds the field, coincides remarkably with the above two fragments (see GOSPELS). As to the rest of the canon, Papias quoted 1 John and 1 Peter, and was cited as an authority for the There are also 'credibility' of the Apocalypse. some indications that he knew the fourth gospel. For Papias generally, see Lightfoot, Essays on the Work entitled 'Supernatural Religion' (1889); for the collected fragments, the Patrum Apost. Opera of Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn; for an English translation, the AnteNicene Library, vol. i. Papier-mâché (Fr., mashed or pulp paper'). This name is applied to a material consisting either of paper-pulp or of sheets of paper pasted together, which by a peculiar treatment resembles varnished Articles of papier-mâché were extensively made Carton-pierre, which has been extensively employed for the internal decoration of buildings (much in the same way as plaster), is formed of paper-pulp mixed with whiting and glue, and pressed into plaster moulds. It is next backed with paper, allowed to set, and dried in a hot room. Ceramic Papier-mâché (Martin's patent dated March 15, 1858) is a very plastic substance, which can be readily moulded or otherwise worked into any required form. It is composed of paperpulp, resin, glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead, well kneaded together. There are various ways of decorating papierFor tea-trays, caskets, panels, and other mâché. objects with a black varnished surface, what is called inlaying' with plates of mother-of-pearl shell, scarcely thicker than stout writing-paper, The pieces of shell has been largely practised. are stuck on with varnish, and the design painted on them with a protecting varnish. An application of acid dissolves away the unprotected parts, and then the interspaces are filled up with varnish. When the surface is rubbed with pumice-stone the superfluous varnish is removed, and the shell ornaments displayed. In a similar way the surface can be inlaid' with cut-out metal devices. Flower and landscape painting has also been much employed in the way of decoration, as well as borders and other ornaments in leaf gold. Owing to the extensive importation in recent years of cheap Japanese lacquer wares (see LACQUER), the Birmingham manufacturers of papier-mâché have now largely resorted to an inexpensive decoration by transfer-printing, which can be done by boys and girls instead of highly-paid artists. A change has also taken place in the nature of the material itself, which has recently been chiefly made of wood-pulp from Sweden. A limited quantity of the old high-class papier-mâché is, however, still regularly manufactured. The variety of papiermaché adopted for architectural ornaments, which are usually more or less in relief, can be readily painted, gilded, or bronzed. The application of papier-mâché to articles requiring great strength, such as wheels for railway carriages, has not proved so successful as was at one time anticipated. Papilionacea (from Lat. papilio, butterfly'), a sub-order of the natural order of plants generally called Leguminosa (q.v.), the plants of which have flowers of the peculiar structure called papilionaceous, and of which the Pea and Bean afford familiar examples. Papilionaceous flowers have five petals, imbricated in estivation (bud), one of which, called the vexillum, or standard, is superior, turned next to the axis, and in estivation folded over the rest; two, called the ala, or wings, are lateral; and two are inferior, which are often united by their lower margins, forming the carina, or keel. The number of the Papilionaceae is very great about 4800 species being known. They are found in all parts of the world, abounding in the tropics. Many have superb and beautiful flowers; many are plants of beautiful form and foliage, trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants; many possess valuable medicinal properties; and many are of great importance as furnishing food for man and for domestic animals, others as furnishing dyes, fibre, timber, &c. See BROOM, LABURNUM, CLOVER, BEAN, PEA, LUCERNE, LIQUORICE, INDIGO, SANDALWOOD, &c. Papillæ. See SKIN, TASTE. PAPPENHEIM and he discovered the principle of action of the siphon. His papers were mostly printed in the Philosophical Transactions, Acta Eruditorum, Journal des Savans, &c. He also wrote Nouvelles Expériences du Vuide (Paris, 1674). See Lives by Ernouf (Paris, 1874) and Gerland (Berlin, 1881). His correspondence with Huygens and Leibnitz was published by Gerland (Berlin, 1881). See Nature, vol. xxiv. (1881). Papineau, LOUIS JOSEPH, Canadian statesman, was born at Montreal in October 1789. At twenty he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, and speedily worked his way to the head of the Radical or French-Canadian party, and in 1815 was chosen speaker of the House of Assembly for Lower Canada, a post that he held until 1837. He opposed the union of Upper and Lower Canada, formulated the grievances and demands of his party in the Ninety-two Resolutions, and agitated actively against the imperial government. When the province rose in rebellion in 1837, a warrant was issued against Papineau for high-treason, though he took no active part in the fighting. He escaped to Paris; but returned to Canada, pardoned, in 1847. He died at Montebello, in Quebec, on 23d September 1871. Papinianus, EMILIUS, down to the time of Justinian the most celebrated of the Roman jurists, lived at Rome during the reign of Septimius Severus, whose second wife is said to have been his relative. Both he and Septimius were pupils of Scævola; Papinianus succeeded the prince as advocatus fisci, and afterwards held the office of præfectus prætorio. The son and successor of Severus, Caracalla, caused Papinianus to be put to death in 212. His works consist of 37 books of Quæstiones, 19 of Responsa, 2 of Definitiones, and De Adulteriis; from these works 595 excerpts were incorporated in Justinian's Pandects. Pappenheim, GOTTFRIED HEINRICH, COUNT VON, an imperial general of great note in the Thirty Years' War, was born at Pappenheim, in Middle Franconia, Bavaria, 29th May 1594, of a very ancient Swabian family, in which the dignity of Marshal of the Empire became hereditary about the 13th or 14th century, and many of whose members had greatly distinguished themselves in the wars of the middle ages. At twenty he went over to the Roman Catholic Church, and thenceforth signalised himself by his fiery zeal in its cause. After serving under the king of Poland in his wars Papin, DENIS, a French physicist, was born at with the Russians and Turks Pappenheim joined Blois, 22d August 1647, and studied medicine in the army of the Catholic League, and in the battle Angers, where he practised for some time as a of Prague (1620) stayed the flight of the Austrian physician. But, becoming acquainted with Huy. cavalry, and by a well-timed and furious charge gens, he helped him in his experiments with the turned the tide of battle against the Bohemians. air-pump; then, crossing to England, he assisted In 1623 he received from the emperor the command Boyle in his physical experiments, invented the of a cavalry regiment of the famous 'Pappenheimer condensing pump and the steam digester (1681)-a Dragoons. In 1625 he became general of the Spansort of steam cooking apparatus, to which was ish horse in Lombardy; but in 1626 he re-entered applied for the first time a safety-valve-and was the Austrian service, and after suppressing a danger. made a member of the Royal Society (1680). ous revolt of the peasants of Upper Austria, in Shortly afterwards he proceeded to Venice for the which 40,000 of the peasants perished, he joined purpose of helping to conduct a newly-founded the army which was opposed to the Protestant academy of science, but was back in London in League, and, in association with Tilly, carried on 1684. Three years later he was appointed pro- many campaigns against the Danes, Swedes, and fessor of Mathematics at Marburg, but from 1696 Saxons. It was Pappenheim who induced Tilly to to 1707 worked in Cassel. Then, returning to attack Magdeburg (q.v.), and on his head rests in England, he died in obscurity, probably in 1712. great measure the guilt of the ferocious massacre. To Papin belongs the honour of having first applied His reckless bravery involved Tilly against his steam (1690) to produce motion by raising a piston, will in the disastrous battle of Breitenfeld; but to and with this he combined the simplest means of some extent he retrieved his character by his heroic producing a vacuum beneath the raised piston-efforts to remedy the loss and protect the retreat viz. by condensation of aqueous vapour. In virtue of the army. After Tilly's death he served under of this his biographer claims that he is really the Wallenstein, who detached him with eight regiinventor of the steam-engine. He is the inventor ments to protect Cologne, but, on hearing of the of the safety-valve, an essential part of his digester; advance of Gustavus, sent an urgent order for his PAPPUS return. Pappenheim arrived at Lützen at the moment when Wallenstein's army was on the point of being completely routed, and at the head of his cuirassiers he charged the left wing of the Swedes with such fury as to throw it into confusion, and for a moment change the fortune of the battle. He was mortally wounded in the last charge, and died a few hours afterwards at Leipzig, November 7, 1632, with a smile on his countenance, after learning that Gustavus Adolphus was dead. 'God be praised!' he said: 'I can go in peace, now that that mortal enemy of the Catholic faith has had to die before me.' Pappus. See COMPOSITE. Pappus OF ALEXANDRIA flourished about the end of either the 3d or the 4th century A.D. Which of these dates is the more probable it is difficult to determine, owing to conflicting evidence, but recent opinion inclines to the former. Suidas states that Pappus was a contemporary of Theon, thus placing him towards the end of the 4th century, and ascribes several treatises to him. These treatises have not survived, and the only work by which Pappus is now known, his Mathematical Collection, receives no mention from Suidas. This work consisted of eight books, the first and the earlier part of the second of which are lost, and its interest is mainly, though not exclusively, historical. From what remains of the second book, it is conjectured that the first two books were arithmetical. The third book explains some of the methods for the duplication of the cube, treats of the progressions and the five regular polyhedra. The fourth book discusses the figure called the arbelos (a shoemaker's knife'), the spiral of Archimedes, the conchoid of Nicomedes, and the quadratrix of Dinostratus. The fifth book contains some theorems regarding isoperimetrical figures plane and solid, and a short account of the semi-regular solids of Archimedes. The sixth book comments on some of the works of Theodosius, Aristarchus of Samos, and Euclid. From the seventh book, which is the longest and most valuable of the Collection, is derived a large part of our knowledge of Greek geometry. Many of the writings here analysed are no longer extant, and it is on the indications (in the notable instance of Euclid's Porisms, the very obscure indications) | which Pappus gives of the object or the contents of them that the geometers of the 17th and 18th centuries relied for their restorations of these writings. The eighth book is devoted mainly to mechanics. The mathematical interest of the Collection does not equal the historical, but several of the books contain important theorems, the discovery of which is probably due to Pappus himself. One of these has been long associated with the name of Guldinus (1577-1643). Some others have received a brilliant development from the mathematicians of modern times. The last six books of the Mathematical Collection were translated into Latin by Commandinus, an Italian geometer, and were published in 1588; another edition appeared in 1660. Fragments of the Greek text have been printed at various times in England, France, and Germany, but the only complete edition is that of Fridericus Hultsch, Pappi Alexandrini Collectionis quæ supersunt (3 vols. Berlin, 1876-78). Papua. See NEW GUINEA. Papules, or PIMPLES, are 'solid small elevations of the skin,' and may be either pale in colour or inflammatory and more or less red. Papules occur as an early stage in the development of the eruption in many skin diseases-e.g. in eczema, where they speedily become vesicles; or in acne, where they become pustules. The papular diseases proper, where the eruption in its fully developed form consists of papules, are lichen and prurigo. Papy'rus, a genus of plants of the natural order Cyperaceae, of which there are several species, the most important being the Egyptian Papyrus or Papyrus of the ancients (P. antiquorum, Cyperus papyrus of Linnæus)-a kind of sedge, 8 to 10 feet high, with a very strong, woody, aromatic, creeping root, long, sharp-keeled leaves, and naked, leafless, triangular, soft, and cellular stems, as thick as a man's arm at the lower part, and at their upper extremity bearing a compound umbel of extremely numerous drooping spikelets, with a general involucre of eight long filiform leaves, each spikelet containing six to thirteen florets. By the ancient Egyptians it was called papu, from which the Greek papyrus is derived, although it was also called by them byblos and deltos. The Hebrews called it gomé, a word resembling the Papyrus. Coptic gom, or volume;' its modern Arabic name |