MARBLEHEAD famous statues still remain which were executed in this marble, but they are always more or less weathered, never retaining the beautiful finish of the Parian statues. The quarries at Carrara (q.v.) were known to the ancients, but they have been more extensively wrought for modern sculptors, who use this marble chiefly. It is a fine-grained, pure white marble, but is so often traversed by gray veins that it is difficult to get large blocks free from these. Of coloured marbles, the best known are the Rosso Antico, a deep blood-red, sprinkled with minute white dots; Verde Antico, a clouded green produced by a mixture of white marble and green serpentine; Giallo Antico, a deep yellow, with black or yellow rings; and Nero Antico, a deep black marble. A true marble is a crystalline granular aggregate of calcite, the granules being of remarkably uniform size. Not infrequently scales of mica or tale occur scattered through the rock. Such a rock is of metamorphic origin: it is simply a limestone which has been rendered entirely crystalline from the effects of heat under pressure, as in the vicinity of large intrusions of igneous rock. Marble may therefore be of any geological age. Many crystalline limestones, which are sometimes entitled to the name of marble, occur associated with gneiss and mica-schist, and are often rich in such minerals as garnet, actinolite, zoisite, mica, &c. Marblehead, a seaport town of Massachusetts, on a rocky promontory, 18 miles NE. of Boston. Its share in the fisheries is no longer important, and the manufacture of boots and shoes is the chief industry. Pop. (1885) 7518. Marburg, a quaint old town in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn, 59 miles by rail N. of Frankfort and 64 SW. of Cassel. It is built on a terraced hill, whose summit is crowned by a stately castle, dating from 1065. In its Rittersaal (1277-1312) was held in 1529 the conference between the Wittenberg and the Swiss reformers regarding the Lord's Supper. The fine Gothic church of Elizabeth with two towers 243 feet high, was built in 1235-83 by the Teutonic Knights over the splendid shrine of St Elizabeth (q.v.), and was thoroughly restored in 1850-67. The university occupies new Gothic buildings of 1879. It was founded in 1527 in the Reformed interest by Philip the Magnanimous, Landgrave of Hesse; and among its earliest students were Patrick Hamilton and William Tyndale. It has about 80 professors and teachers, 800 to 1000 students in philosophy, medicine, theology, and jurisprudence, and a library of 120,000 volumes. Pop. (1875) 9600; (1885) 12,668. See three works by Kolbe (Marburg, 1871-84). Marcantonio, or in full, M. RAIMONDI, an Italian engraver, born at Bologna late in the 15th century. A goldsmith by trade, he early turned to engraving, and received his first great stimulus from woodcuts of Albrecht Dürer, which he saw at Venice about 1505. He copied on copper two sets of plates from the German master's designs for the Life of the Virgin' and the 'Passion of Christ' (see DÜRER). At Rome, where he worked from 1510, he was chiefly engaged in engraving Raphael's works, as Lucretia,' the Massacre of the Innocents,' the Three Doctors of the Church,' Adam and Eve,' Dido,' Poetry,' the Judg. ment of Paris,' &c., and subsequently those of Raphael's pupil, Giulio Romano. On account of the power of his drawing and the purity of his expression, he is accounted the best amongst the engravers of the great painter. The capture of Rome by the Constable Bourbon in 1527 drove Marcantonio back to Bologna, where he probably remained until he died, some time before 1534 | Marceau, FRANÇOIS SEVERIN DESGRAVIERS, French general, was born at Chartres on 1st March 1769. On the outbreak of the Revolution he was appointed inspector of the national guard in his native town, and in 1792 helped to defend Verdun with a body of volunteers till its surrender. His brilliant military career was ended in four years from this time; but they were four years of stirring activity. Sent in the following year to join the republican army in La Vendée, he was, for his services in the engagements before Saumur and Le Mans, promoted to the rank of general of division. Then, proceeding to the north-east frontier, he commanded the right wing at Fleurus, and after the allies retreated occupied Coblenz. During the campaign of 1796 he was given command of the first division of Jourdan's army, and sat down to But invest Mainz, Mannheim, and Coblenz. whilst covering the retreat of the French at Altenkirchen he was shot, on 19th September, and died four days later. His body was buried in the entrenched camp at Coblenz, but was transferred to the Panthéon in Paris in 1889. He ranks next after Hoche amongst the French generals of military genius, but also on account of the nobility the early years of the Revolution, not only for and uprightness of his personal character. Lives by Doublet de Boisthibault (Chartres, 1851) and Maze (Paris, 1888). See Marcello, BENEDETTO, musical composer, born in Venice on 1st August 1686, was a judge of the republic, and a member of the Council of Forty, and afterwards held important administrative offices at Pola and Brescia, where he died on 24th July 1739. He had a passion for music, and is remembered as the composer of music for Giustiniani's version of the Psalms (8 vols. 172427), of numerous concertos, canzonis, cantatas, a pastoral, an oratorio, and other pieces, distinguished for their simple yet elevated style, and as the author of a satirical work, Il Teatro alla Moda (1720). Marcellus, the name of two popes, of whom the second deserves special notice, as having, when Cardinal Marcello Cervini, taken a very prominent part in the discussions of the Council of Trent, over which he was appointed to preside as legate of Julius III. He was elected pope 10th April 1555, and survived his elevation but twenty-two days. He did not follow the usual custom of laying aside his baptismal name and assuming a new one. Marcellus, M. CLAUDIUS, a famous Roman general, of one of the most eminent plebeian families. In his first consulship (222 B.C.) he defeated the Insubrian Gauls, and slew with his own hand their king, Britomartus or Viridomarus, whose spoils he dedicated as spolia opima to Jupiter -the third and last occasion in Roman history. In the second Punic war Marcellus took command after the disaster of Canna, and put a check upon the victorious Hannibal at Nola, in Campania (216 B.C.). Again consul in 214 B.C., he gave a fresh impulse to the war in Sicily, but all his efforts to take Syracuse were rendered unavailing by the skill of Archimedes, and he was compelled to regularly blockade the city. Famine, pestilence, and ultimately treachery on the part of the Spanish auxiliaries of the Syracusans, opened its gates (212 B.C.), after which the remainder of Sicily was soon brought under the dominion of the Romans. In his fifth consulship, 208 B.C., he fell in a skirmish against Hannibal. Marcet, JANE, known as MRS MARCET, the author of a very popular elementary introduction to chemistry entitled Conversations on Chemistry, through which Faraday made his first acquaintance with the subject. She was the daughter of a rich London merchant, a Swiss by birth, and was herself born at Geneva in 1769. She married Alexander Mercet, a Genevan, who settled in London as a doctor in the last years of the 18th century, and later in life devoted himself to experimental chemistry. Besides the book on chemistry, which reached the 16th ed. in 1853, she wrote Conversations on Political Economy (1817; 7th ed. 1839), which was warmly praised by J. B. Say, by M'Culloch, and by Lord Macaulay; Conversations on Natural Philosophy (1819; 13th ed. 1858), and similar books on Botany (9th ed. 1840), Vegetable Physiology, &c., besides numerous charming Stories for very Little Children, in the estimation of many her best work. She died in London on 28th June 1858. See Harriet Martineau's Biographical Sketches (1869). March (Slav. Morava), the principal river of Moravia, rises on the boundary between that country and Prussian Silesia, and flows 214 miles south to the Danube, which it joins 6 miles above Presburg. It receives on the right the Thaya. In its lower course it forms the boundary between Austria and Hungary. It is navigable for small boats from Göding, 50 miles from its mouth. March, a market-town of Cambridgeshire, on the Nen, 14 miles E. of Peterborough and 16 NW. of Ely. Its church has a fine Perpendicular clerestory, with splendid roof. Pop. of parish (1851) 6241; (1881) 6190. March, the first month of the Roman year, and the third according to our present calendar, consists of thirty-one days. It was considered as the first month of the year in England until the change of style in 1752, and the legal year was reckoned from the 25th March. Its last three days (old style) were once popularly supposed to have been borrowed by March from April, and are proverbially stormy. March, a musical composition, chiefly for military bands, with wind-instruments, intended to accompany the marching of troops. There are slow and quick marches, and marches peculiar to different countries. Marches are also introduced into oratorios, the best-known examples being the Dead March' from the oratorio of Saul, and Mendelssohn's Wedding March.' Marchantia. See LIVERWORT. Marchena, a town of Spain, 47 miles by rail E. by S. of Seville, with a ducal (Arcos) palace, and sulphur-baths. Pop. 13,768. Marches, the border districts that run contiguous on each side of the boundary line between England and Scotland, and between England and Wales. The Lords of the Marches were the nobles to whom estates on the borders were given, on condition that they defended the country against the aggressions of the people on the other side. Under the Norman and Plantagenet kings of England there was almost chronic war between the English Lords of the Marches and the Welsh. For the Scottish-English Marches, see BORDERS.The Mortimers, Earls of March, took their title from March in Cambridgeshire.-The corresponding German word Mark was in like manner applied to the border countries or districts of the German empire, conquered from neighbouring nations-the marks of Austria, of Brandenburg, Altmark, Steiermark, &c. The governors entrusted with the charge of these marks were called mark-grafs or margraves, MAREMMA corresponding to the English and Scottish Wardens of the Marches (see MARQUIS). The ancient German tribe of Marcomanni were Marchmen. In Italy The Marches include the march of Ancona | (q.v.) and three other provinces (see ITALY). Marchetti, FILIPPO, an operatic composer, born at Rome in 1835, became in 1881 president of a musical college in Rome. His best-known operas are Romeo e Giulietta (1865) and Ruy Blas (1869). Marcianisi, an agricultural town of Italy, situated in a marshy district, 12 miles by rail N. of Naples. Pop. 11,083. Marcion, the founder of the Marcionites, a rigorously ascetic sect which attained a great importance between the years 150 and 250 A.D. He was a native of Sinope in Pontus, became wealthy as a shipowner, and about 140 repaired to views of Christianity, which he considered to be Rome. There he laboured to correct the prevailing a corruption of Jewish errors with the gospel of Christ as expounded by Paul, its best interpreter. The opposition which he encountered drove him to found a new community about 144, and he laboured earnestly propagating his theology until his death about 165. Marcion was hardly a Gnostic, although he had been intimate with Cerdo, and Gnostic speculations certainly influenced the development of the Marcionite theology. Failing to recognise the New Testament God of love in the Old Testament, and profoundly influenced by the radical Pauline antithesis of law and gospel, he constructed an ethico-dualistic philosophy of religion, and proceeded to cosmological speculations which are not free from contradictions. He set aside as spurious all the gospels save Luke, and it, as well as the Pauline epistles, he purged of Judaising interpolations. He was thus the earliest to make a canonical collection of New Testament writings. From about the beginning of the 4th century the Marcionites began to be absorbed in the Mani chæans. Marcion's doctrines can be discovered from the controversial writings of Fathers, as TerSee works tullian, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, &c. of Baur, Möller, Lipsius, and Harnack quoted under GNOSTICISM. Marco Polo. See POLO. Mardi Gras. See SHROVE-TIDE. Mardin, a town of Asiatic Turkey, is strikingly situated on the southern slopes of the Mardin Hills, 60 miles SE. of Diarbekir. Pop. 12,000, of whom half are Moslem Kurds. Maree', LOCH, a beautiful lake of Ross-shire, 40 miles W. of Dingwall. Lying 32 feet above sea-level, it is 12 miles long, 3 furlongs to 24 miles broad, 360 feet deep, and 11 sq. m. in area. It is overhung by mountains, 3000 feet high; sends off the Ewe, 3 miles long, to the sea; and contains twenty-seven islets, one with remains of an ancient chapel and a graveyard. Queen Victoria's residence at Loch Maree in 1877 is described in her More Leaves (1884). Maremma (corrupted from Marittima, situated on the sea '), a marshy region of Italy, extending along the sea-coast of Tuscany from the river Cecina to Orbitello, and embracing an area of about 1000 sq. m. The Pontine Marshes and the Campagna of Rome are similar districts. In Roman times and earlier the Maremma was a fruitful and populous plain; but the decay of agriculture, consequent upon unsettled political history, fostered the encroachments of malaria, which now reigns supreme in great part of these stricken districts. Leopold II. of Tuscany directed especial attention (1824-44) to the drainage and amelioration of the Maremma, and his efforts and subsequent measures MARENGO have been attended with considerable success. Crops are now grown in the summer on the fertile soil of the infected area by the inhabitants of the adjoining hill-country, who go down only to sow and to reap their crops. During winter the Maremma is healthier and yields good pasture. Marengo, a village of Northern Italy, in a marshy district near the Bormida, 3 miles SE. of Alessandria. Here on 14th June 1800 Napoleon, with 33,000 French, defeated 30,500 Austrians under Melas. It was the cavalry charge of the younger Kellermann that turned what looked like certain defeat into a decisive victory, though the French lost 7000 in killed and wounded, the Austrians only 6400 (besides 3000 prisoners ). Mareotis, or MAREIA, LAKE, the modern El Mariát, a salt lake or marsh in the north of Egypt, extends southward from Alexandria, and is separated from the Mediterranean, on its northwest side, by a narrow isthmus of sand. In the 15th and 16th centuries it was a navigable lake; in 1798 it was found by the French to be a dry sandy plain; but in 1801 the English army cut the dikes of the canal that separated the Lake of Aboukir from Mareotis, to cut off the water-supply of the French, and Mareotis became once more a marsh. The like happened again in 1803, in 1807, and in 1882; on the last occasion the sea introduced directly through a cutting 15 feet wide and half a mile long. Mare's Milk. See KOUMISS. was Mare's Tail (Hippuris vulgaris), a tall erect marsh-plant, with whorls of narrow leaves and inconspicuous flowers. Margaret, ST, Scottish queen, was born about 1047 in Hungary, and from 1057 was brought up at the court of her great-uncle, Edward the Confessor, with Lanfranc for her spiritual instructor. In 1068, with her mother and sister and her boy brother, Edgar the Atheling (q.v.), she fled from Northumberland to Scotland. Young, lovely, learned, and pious, she won the heart of the rude Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore (q.v.), who next year wedded her at Dunfermline. Perhaps,' says Skene, 'there is no more beautiful character recorded in history than that of Margaret. For purity of motives, for an earnest desire to benefit the people among whom her lot was cast, for a deep sense of religion and great personal piety, for the unselfish performance of whatever duty lay before her, and for entire self-abnegation she is unsurpassed.' She did much to civilise the northern realm, and still more to assimilate the old Celtic church to the rest of Christendom on such points as the due commencement of Lent, the Easter communion, the observance of Sunday, and marriage within the prohibited degrees. She built, too, a stately church at Dunfermline, and re-founded Iona. She bore her husband six sons and two daughters, and died three days after him, in Edinburgh Castle, on 16th November 1093. Innocent IV. canonised her in 1250. Her head, which had found its way from Dunfermline to Douay, was lost in the French Revolution; but her remaining relics are said to have been enshrined by Philip II. in the Escorial. See the Latin Life by her confessor Turgot, Bishop of St Andrews (Eng. trans. by Fr. Forbes-Leith, 1884); Skene's Celtic Scotland (vol. ii. 1877); and Bellesheim's History of the Catholic Church of Scotland (Eng. trans. 1887). Margaret, the Semiramis of the North,' queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was the second daughter of Waldemar IV. of Denmark, and wife of Hacon VIII. of Norway, and was born in 1353. On the death of her father without male heirs in 1375, the Danish nobles offered her the crown in trust for her infant son Olaf. By the death of Hacon in 1380 Margaret became ruler of Norway as well as of Denmark. When Olaf died in 1387 Margaret nominated her grand-nephew, Eric of Pomerania, as her successor. The Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, having so thoroughly alienated the affections of his subjects that the nobles, declaring the throne vacant, offered in 1388 to acknowledge Margaret as their ruler, she sent an army into Sweden, which defeated the king's German troops, near Falköping, and took Albert and his son prisoners. Albert remained in prison seven years, during which time Margaret, in spite of the efforts of the Hanseatic League and its allies, wholly subjugated Sweden. In the following year (1396) Eric of Pomerania was crowned king of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, and though he was proclaimed king de facto next year, the power still remained in the hands of Margaret. In May 1397 was signed the celebrated Union of Calmar, by which it was stipulated that the three kingdoms though each should retain its own laws and cusshould remain for ever at peace under one king, toms. Before her death at Flensborg, on 28th she held for her grand-nephew by the acquisition of October 1412, Margaret had enlarged the territories Lapland and part of Finland. She was a woman of masculine energy and strong will, and ruled her subjects with a firm hand. Margaret of Anjou, the queen of Henry VI. of England, was daughter of René of Anjou, the titular king of Sicily, and of Isabella of Lorraine, and was born at Pont-à-Mousson, in Lorraine, 24th March 1429. She was married to Henry VI. of England in 1445; and her husband being a person darkened by complete imbecility, she exercised an whose naturally weak intellect was sometimes almost unlimited authority over him, and was the at her marriage, by which Maine and Anjou were virtual sovereign of the realm. A secret contract relinquished to the French, excited great dissatiswhich broke out anew in 1449, in the course of faction in England, and the war with the French English to the charge of the already unpopular which all Normandy was lost, was laid by the Cade, and soon after the country was plunged in queen. the horrors of that bloody civil war known as the Wars of the Roses. Margaret took an active part the most heroic courage. At length, after a struggle in the contest, braving disaster and defeat with of nearly twenty years, Margaret was finally defeated at Tewkesbury, and flung into the Tower, redeemed her for fifty thousand crowns. where she remained four years, till Louis XI. then retired to France, and died at the château of Dampierre, near Saumur, in Anjou, 25th August 1482. Mrs Hookham's Life (1872) is not altogether satisfactory as history. In 1450 occurred the insurrection of Jack She Margaret of Navarre, in her youth known as Marguerite d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I. of France, and daughter of Charles of Orleans, Comte d'Angoulême, was born at Angoulême, 11th April 1492. She was carefully educated, and early showed remarkable sweetness and charm added to unusual strength of mind. In 1509 she was married to Charles, Duke of Alençon, who died in 1525; and in 1527 she was married to Henri d'Albret, titular king of Navarre, to whom she bore Jeanne d'Albret, mother of the great French monarch, Henry IV. She encouraged agriculture, the arts, and learning, and sheltered with a cour ageous generosity such advocates of freer thought in religion as Marot and Bonaventure des Périers. Accusations entirely unfounded have been brought by interested bigotry against her morals. She died 21st December 1549. Her writings include a series of remarkably interesting Letters (ed. by Génin, are 2 vols. 1842-43), a miscellaneous collection of poems gracefully entitled Les Marguerites de la Marguerite (ed. by Frank, 4 vols. 1873), and especially the famous Heptameron des Nouvelles (1558; ed. by Leroux de Lincy, 3 vols. 1855), modelled on the Decameron of Boccaccio, but worked out in an original manner. A company of ladies and gentlemen returning from Cauterets detained by bad weather, and beguile the time by telling stories, seventy-two in number, which are separated by interludes introducing the persons. The subjects of the stories are similar to those of the Decameron, but the manners delineated are more refined; and they reflect closely the strange combination of religious fervour with religious freethinking and refined voluptuousness so characteristic of the time. Most critics believe the work to be the joint-production of the queen, of Des Périers, and other men. See Lives by Durand (Paris, 1848), Miss Freer (London, 1854), and Lotheisen (Berlin, 1885). Margaric Acid was formerly thought to be a separate body, but is now known to be a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. It is obtained from fats. Margarine, or OLEO-MARGARINE. See the paragraph on Butterine in the article BUTTER. Margarita, an island in the Caribbean Sea, belonging to Venezuela. Area, 380 sq. m. Discovered by Columbus in 1498, Margarita was long famous for its pearl-fisheries, but now its chief export is salted fish. The island forms the great part (the small Blanquilla, Los Hermanos, &c. make the rest) of the Nueva Esparta section of Guzman Blanco state, of which the pop. in 1886 was 41,893. Margary, AUGUSTUS RAYMOND, traveller, was born 26th May 1846, at Belgaum, in the presidency of Bombay, the son of an English officer. Educated in England at Brighton College and University College, London, he qualified for a student-interpretership in China, and went out in 1867. During the next six years he served at Peking, in Formosa, at Chefoo, and at Shanghai. In August 1874 he was ordered to cross south-west China to Burma to meet a British mission under Colonel Browne, the object of which was to open the overland route between Burma and China. Margary was to act as interpreter and guide to the mission. He successfully accomplished the perilous journey, and set out back again with Colonel Browne, but was murdered by the Chinese at a place called Manwyne on 21st February 1875. The Journals and Letters of his journey, together with a biographical preface, and a concluding chapter by Sir Rutherford Alcock, were published in 1876. Margate, a seaport and municipal borough of England, in the Isle of Thanet, Kent, 3 miles W. of the North Foreland and 74 E. by S. of London, has for many years been the favourite seaside resort of cockney holiday-makers, who, during the season, by rail and by steamer, pour into the town in their thousands. Possessed of many natural advantages in its bracing air, good bathing, and excellent firm sands, Margate offers besides all the customary attractions of a watering-place, with its pier (900 feet long), jetty (upwards of a quarter of a mile in length), theatre, assembly-rooms, baths, zoological gardens, &c. It contains also two interesting churches-one exhibiting traces of Norman and Early English work, and the other with a tower of 135 feet, forming a conspicuous landmark; the Royal Sea-bathing Infirmary, founded 1792 and enlarged 1882; a town-hall (1820); and an extensive deaf and dumb asylum (1875-80-86). Formerly the port was the scene of the embarkation or landing of many royal and other persons, amongst the latter being the wounded brought back from MARGINAL CREDITS the field of Waterloo. Queen Victoria visited the town in 1835, where too for a short time Turner the painter (one of whose earliest known sketches is a view of Margate church) was at school. Pop. (1801) 4766; (1881) 18,226. Margaux, a village 15 miles by rail NNW. of Bordeaux, near the left bank of the Gironde, with a number of white villas, half-hidden amidst trellised vines. The château (a handsome Italian villa) and its celebrated vineyards are half a mile distant. Pop. 1619. Margay (Felis tigrina), a species of cat or tiger-cat, a native of the forests of Brazil and Guiana, smaller and less handsome than the ocelot, which in general appearance it much resembles, though its spots are smaller. It is little larger tion, and of being made very useful in rat-killing. than the domestic cat. It is capable of domesticaMarghilan, capital of Ferghana (q.v.). Marginal Credits, a term applied to business operations, in which bankers lend the credit of their names, as it were, to their customers, and thus enable them to carry out important commercial transactions which otherwise could not be so conveniently undertaken. A merchant in England, for instance, desires to import tea or silk, but his name is not so well known on the Chinese Exchanges that bills drawn upon him by a merchant in China can be sold there at a reasonable chased without the money being on the spot to buy The tea or silk cannot be purrate of exchange. it with, and were the merchant to send out specie for that purpose he would involve himself in heavy charges for freight and insurance, and lose the interest of his money while on the voyage. Moreover, before the remittance (silver probably) could arrive, the market prices of tea and silk might have so altered that a purchase might not be desir able, and the money would thus be placed where it was not wanted. But, while drafts by the merchant in China on the merchant in England would not sell, or only at a heavy sacrifice, the drafts by the merchant in China on a banker in England will sell at the best price. The merchant in this country therefore deposits with his banker cash or securities equal to the amount to which he desires to use the banker's name, and receives from him Marginal Credits for the amount. These are billforms drawn upon the banker, but neither dated nor signed, with a margin containing the banker's obligation to accept the bills when presented. The bills are dated, drawn, and endorsed by the merchant abroad before being sold, so that the obligation runs from the date on which the money was actually paid; and the tea or silk is most likely in the merchant's warehouse before the bill is payable. For the transaction, the banker charges the merchant a commission to remunerate himself for the risk involved. In recent years the use of marginal bills has largely fallen off in consequence of the development of electrical communication. Merchants now prefer to arrange with their bankers for a telegraphic transfer,' by which an immediate cash payment is effected through a foreign bank. Many transactions between merchants abroad and in England can only be carried through by the acceptances of a London banker being tendered in payment, but the transactions are intrinsically the same as when Marginal Credits are used. Bankers in the country obtain the acceptance of a London banker for bills to be drawn against goods their customers are importing. Bankers-usually in London-also accept bills to a great amount for the exchange operations of foreign banks. A banker in, say Canton, buys from his customers bills drawn upon merchants in England for a given amount, and sends them to his corre MARGRAVE spondent in London, who holds them for him and grants a credit in his favour on the security of them. The Canton banker operates upon this credit by drawing upon the London banker, and sells his drafts at the most favourable exchange. With the money received he purchases other bills, and remits them also, to be again drawn against. When these operations are made with caution and sound judgment they are beneficial to all concerned; but when engaged in without sufficient knowledge or recklessly they involve most disas trous consequences. Margrave. See MARCHES, MARQUIS. Marguerite. See MARGARET. Marguerite. See CHRYSANTHEMUM. Marheineke, PHILIPP CONRAD, Protestant theologian, born at Hildesheim on 1st May 1780, began to teach at Göttingen in 1804, was appointed a theological professor and university preacher at Erlangen in 1805, and subsequently held theological chairs at Heidelberg (from 1807) and Berlin (from 1811). He died on 31st May 1846. After Hegel's death Marheineke was the chief figure among the right wing of that philosopher's disciples. His Hegelian views found expression in Grundlehren der Dogmatik (2d ed. 1827) and Vorlesungen über die Christliche Moral, Dogmatik, &c. (4 vols. 1847-49). He also wrote Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (4 vols. 2d ed. 1831-34), Institutiones Symbolica (3d ed. 1830), System des Katholizismus in seiner symbolischen Entwickelung (3 vols. 1810-13), and other works. Maria Christina, queen of Spain, born at Naples, 27th April 1806, was a daughter of Francis I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1829 she became the fourth wife of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, and in October of that year gave birth to a daughter, Isabella II. Ferdinand died 29th September 1833, and by his testament his widow was appointed guardian of her children-the young Queen Isabella and the Infanta Maria Louisa, Duchess de Montpensier-and also regent. A civil war broke out (see CARLISTS); but the queen-mother seemed indifferent to everything except the company of Don Fernando Muñoz, whom she made her chamberlain, and with whom she was united, in December 1833, in a morganatic marriage. She had ten children by him. A conspiracy, which broke out on the night of the 13th August 1836, led the queen-mother to concede a constitution to Spain. In 1840 a popular commotion ensued, and she gave to the new prime-minister, Espartero, a renunciation of the regency, and retired to France, whence she returned in 1843. Her participation in the schemes of Louis-Philippe as to the marriage of her daughters in 1846, and the continual exercise of her influence in a manner unfavourable to consti tutional liberty, made her hateful to the patriotic party in Spain. At length, in July 1854, à revolution expelled her from the country, and she again took refuge in France, but returned to Spain in 1864, only to retire again in 1868. She died at Le Havre, August 1878. See CARLISTS, and SPAIN. She was Maria Louisa, the second wife of Napoleon I., born 12th December 1791, was the daughter of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria. married to Napoleon after the divorce of Josephine, 2d April 1810. On 20th March following she bore a son, who was called King of Rome. At the beginning of the campaign of 1813 Napoleon appointed her regent in his absence, but under many limitations. On the abdication of Napoleon, not being permitted to follow him into exile, she went with her son to Schönbrunn, where she remained till 1816, when she received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. In 1822 she contracted a morganatic marriage with Count von Neipperg. She died at Vienna, 17th December 1847. See Lives by Helfert (1873) and Imbert de SaintAmand (Eng. trans. 1886), her Correspondance (1887), and the Mémoires of Mme. Durand, her maid of honour (1885). Mariana, JUAN, a Spanish historian, was born at Talavera in 1536, entered at eighteen the then rising order of the Jesuits, and afterwards taught in the Jesuit colleges at Rome (where Bellarmine was one of his scholars), in Sicily, and finally in Paris. After seven years of labour in Paris he was driven by ill-health to Toledo, and there he lived in unbroken literary labours till his death, at an extreme old age, in 1624. His Historia de Rebus Hispaniæ first appeared in 20 books in 1592, and was supplemented by 10 additional books, carrying the narrative down to the accession of Charles V., in 1605. Its admirable Latinity and undoubted historical merits give it an abiding value. Mariana himself published a Spanish translation (1601-9), which still remains one of the classics of the language. His Tractatus VII. Theologici et Historici (1609) roused the suspicion of the Inquisition. But the most celebrated of the works of Mariana is his well-known treatise De Rege et Regis Institutione (1599), which raises the question whether it be lawful to overthrow a tyrant, and answers it in the affirmative, even where the tyrant is not a usurper but a lawful king. This tyrannicide doctrine drew much odium upon the entire order of Jesuits, especially after the murder of Henry IV. of France by Ravaillac in 1610; but it is only just to observe that, while, upon the one hand, precisely the same doctrines were taught in almost the same words by several of the Protestant contemporaries of Mariana, on the other, Mariana's book itself was formally condemned by the general Acquaviva, and the doctrine forbidden to be taught by members of the order. Mariana Islands. See LADRONES. Marianna, an episcopal city of Brazil, 3 miles E. of Ouro Preto. The neighbouring gold-mines are exhausted. Pop. 5000. Marianus Scotus, an early Irish or Scottish chronicler, who, quitting his country in 1052, took the monastic VOWS as a Benedictine at Cologne in 1058, and then settled in the monastery at Fulda. Ten years later he removed to Mainz, where, and also at Ratisbon, he taught mathematics and theology. He died at Mainz in 1086, leaving a Chronicon Universale, which began at the creation and came down to the year 1083. It was published at Basel in 1559 and at Frankfort in 1613. Maria Theresa, empress, the daughter of the Emperor Charles VI., was born at Vienna, for the fulfilment of which the principal Euro13th May 1717. By the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.), her heir to his hereditary thrones. In 1736 she pean powers became sureties, her father appointed married Francis of Lorraine, afterwards Grandduke of Tuscany, to whom she gave an equal share in the government when, on the death of her father, 21st October 1740, she became queen of Hungary and of Bohemia, and Archduchess of Austria. At her accession the monarchy was exhausted, the finances embarrassed, the people discontented, and the army weak; whilst Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Sardinia, abetted by France, put forward claims to the whole or to portions of her dominions. Frederick II. of Prussia claimed Silesia, and poured his armies into it; Spain laid hands on the Austrian dominions in Italy; and the Bavarians, assisted by the French, invaded Bohemia, and, passing on into the archduchy of Austria, threatened Vienna, the Elector of Bavaria |