Larned Historical changes. Cleveland, G., in Atlan tic Mo, 85 (1900), 726-732. General. Veto power. Bryce, Am. Commonwealth, abr. ed., 41-44, 163-166. Messages. been chosen by the national civil service commission. The number of places filled in this way has been increased so rapidly that in 1907 about 200,000 of the 350,000 civil positions under the national government were filled by the Commission. Of the remainder, 40 per cent are fourth-class postmasters chosen by the fourth Postmaster-general. 327. The Power of Removal. The Constitution does not state how removals shall be made, but by custom it is now left exclusively with the President, although for twenty years officials could be removed only with the consent of the Senate. Having so much influence in appointments, the Senate would naturally wish to be consulted in removals as well. The First Congress, however, passed a resolution which declared that the President was not obliged to obtain the consent of the Senate. This practice remained unchanged until, in 1867, Congress passed the famous Tenure of Office Act, requiring the indorsement of the Senate for both removals and appointments. In 1887 this law was repealed and the power again left to the President alone. When an official resigns or is removed during a recess of the Senate, his successor may hold office without confirmation until the close of the next session of Congress. 328. Legislative Powers. - The President may exert a very powerful influence upon the actions of Congress through his right to veto bills, to call special sessions, and to adjourn Congress when the houses fail to agree upon a date. Sometimes he also succeeds in persuading the national legislature to carry out his policy by sending regular and special messages. The President's right to veto bills (§ 301) gives him more influence over Congress than any of his other legislative powers. Most Presidents have, however, used the veto sparingly, and some not at all. The proportion of bills passed over vetoes has been remarkably small, for the congressmen have rarely failed to be impressed by the reasons given for executive disapproval, and a two-thirds majority can be obtained only under exceptional circumstances. The President's annual message is always sent to Congress the first week of each session. It is usually little more than Constitu a summary of the work of each of the executive departments, tion, Art. IL §3. with some suggestions on that work. Occasionally, a large part of the message is taken up with the formulation and statement of some policy; but this is not common, as the message nowadays exerts but little influence on the course of legislation. Special messages are often sent. If these relate to some subject of great popular interest, their influence upon legislation is marked and immediate; but with special messages, it is the pressure of public opinion, rather than the power of the President, that leads to favorable action. Persons who have broken national Judicial laws and been convicted, may have their sentences tempora powers. rily suspended, i.e., they may be reprieved by the President. He may grant pardons as well, except in cases of impeach- Harrison, ment. The power has been used most extensively in granttry of Ours, ing amnesties to persons who have taken part in insurrections 142-148. against the United States. Otherwise, it does not possess the significance that attaches to the pardon of the state governors (§ 94), because offenses against national law are very much less numerous than those committed under state laws. 329. Other Powers. This Coun affairs. The President has almost absolute control of foreign affairs. Foreign The Secretary of State (§ 335), to whom the actual negotiation of treaties and the conduct of other foreign relations is intrusted (§ 228), is the personal representative of the President, removable by him at any time. Although the President always deals with foreign nations through the secretary, the President has an unquestioned right to recognize a new government, and to decide when a minister shall be received or dismissed. The policy called the Monroe Doctrine is distinctively a presidential policy (§ 230). His independence is more conspicuous in foreign relations than in military affairs, and his power in connection with these two subjects is comparable only with that of appointment and the veto. General References Hinsdale, The American Government, §§ 446–511. Hart, Actual Government, pp. 258-294. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Chapters V-VIII, LXIXLXXII. ate, Harrison, This Country of Ours, pp. 68–180. Baldwin, Modern Political Institutions, pp. 80-116. Eaton, D. B., in Lalor, Cyclopedia, on "Confirmations by the Sen," "Removals," and "Term and Tenure of Office.” Johnson, A., in Lalor, Cyclopedia, on "Executive" and "Veto." Salmon, Appointing Power of the President. Topics 1. OTHER PLANS OF CHOOSING THE PRESIDENT: Merrill, S. M., in North American Review, 163 (1896), 402–415; Carlisle, J. G., in Forum, 24 (1898), 651-659; Handiboe, J., in North American Review, 171 (1900), 281–288. 2. DISPUTED ELECTION OF 1876: Stanwood, History of the Presidency, pp. 356-393; Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation, pp. 651-668; Rhodes, United States since 1850, VII, pp. 206-281; Haworth, Disputed Presidential Election of 1876. 3. THE MONROE DOCTRINE: Foster, Century of American Diplomacy, pp. 438-478; Latané, United States and Spanish America, pp. 266-289; McMaster, With the Fathers, pp. 1-54; The American Nation, XXIV, pp. 304-313, XXV, pp. 255–284. Studies 1. Important national conventions. Hoar, G. F., in Scribner's Magazine, 25 (1900), 152–174. 2. Famous speeches at national conventions. Orr, L., in Munsey's Magazine, 29 (1908), 1–14. 3. The great political conventions (1908). Outlook, 89 (1908), 417– 424, 645-654. 4. Management of presidential campaigns. Review of Reviews, 22 (1900), 549-562; 30 (1904), 289–298; Rogers, J. M., in Booklovers Magazine, 14 (1904), 437-451. 5. Campaign spellbinders. Crissey, F., in Reader, 4 (1904), 635642; Guild, C., Jr., in Scribner's Magazine, 32 (1902), 561-575. 6. The presidential office. Rhodes, J. F., in Scribner's Magazine, 33 (1903), 157–173. 7. The hampered executive. Nelson, H. L., in Century Magazine, 66 (1903), 140–151. 8. The overworked President. Steffens, L., in McClure's Magazine, 18 (1902), 483-492. 9. The life of a President. Harrison, This Country of Ours, pp. 159-180. 10. Our fellow-citizen of the White House. Buel, C. C., in Century Magazine, 53 (1897), 645–664. 11. Restoration of the White House. Moore, C., in Century Magazine, 65 (1903), 807-831. 12. Independence of the executive. Monthly, 85 (1900), 721-732; 86, 1-14. lems. Cleveland, G., in Atlantic 13. The President and the Pullman strike (1894). Cleveland, G., in McClure's Magazine, 23 (1904), 227–240. Also in Presidential Problems, 79-117. Questions 1. During the last presidential campaign, what candidates were before the conventions? How many ballots were taken at each convention? Was there any dispute over any plank of the platform? If so, what one? (Newspaper Almanacs for following year.) 2. How many members of the "electoral college" are there ? How many are necessary to a choice? How many electors has this State? How have they voted in recent elections? (Appendix B.) 3. Have we had any Presidents since the Civil War who received a minority of the popular vote? What Presidents have been chosen from west of the Mississippi? What States have had the greatest number? (Newspaper Almanacs.) 4. What persons connected with the postal service are selected by the President and Senate? by the fourth postmaster-general? by the Civil Service Commission ? 5. What important treaties have been negotiated the past year or two? Were they ratified at once by the Senate ? 6. What President has vetoed the most bills? Which one has had the largest number of important ones passed over his veto ? Name any recent use of the veto. 7. Look up the last presidential message. space given? What policies are suggested? gestions been incorporated in law? To what topics is most Have any of these sug Composition and duties. Common wealth, abr. ed., 64-70. CHAPTER XXVI THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS THE PRESIDENT'S CABINET 330. Introductory. Although the power of our national executive belongs almost exclusively to the President, the administration of its business remains with the different executive departments. At present there are nine of these — the Bryce, Am. Department of State, the Treasury, War, Navy, Post Office, Interior, Justice, Agriculture, and Commerce. The heads of these departments, usually called secretaries,' are selected by the President and are personally responsible to him. Collectively, they form an advisory body called the Cabinet, Fairlie, Nat. Which assists him in forming and executing any policy in Administra- which the entire Administration is interested. All questions tion, 54-63. of moment are discussed in Cabinet meetings, held at the White House twice a week, but the President is in no wise bound to follow the advice of his Cabinet, and may act in opposition to the wishes of all the secretaries. Much more frequently, of course, the President and his associates hold identical views upon public questions, yet we must not forget that in the last analysis the policy of an Administration is the policy of the President and not that of the Cabinet. Selection of Cabinet officers. Formerly, unsuccessful candidates for the presidency were often chosen for Cabinet positions. E.g. President Lincoln appointed William H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, and Simon Cameron, all of whom had been political rivals, to the three most important positions in his Cabinet. This custom has fallen into disuse, and recent Presidents have usually selected business men for the business departments, and promi 1 The heads of the Departments of Justice and the Post Office are known as the Attorney-general and the Postmaster-general. |