or may have been occupied in by-gone times for torturing and destroying their prisoners. The great Indian trail, or war-path, which extends from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi, passes along the edge of this chain of earth-works. It is doubtful what animals are intended to be represented by these rude monuments of earth. It may be the horse, or perhaps the buffalo, an animal which in these wide hunting grounds had the finest pasturage and an almost boundless range; but the characteristic hump of the buffalo would scarcely be omitted in these effigies, and though distributed over the surface of many hundred square miles of this country, that distinctive mark has nowhere been observed. THE mounds and earth-works which are so profusely | the Indians in their dances, whether peaceful or warlike, scattered over the plains of Europe, and are especially abundant on the chalky downs of England, are simple but enduring records of those primitive nations which have long since passed away, or whose descendants have been absorbed into the great stream of civilization which has swept over their respective territories. These mounds occur also in large numbers in America. On the borders of the Ohio, throughout the great valley of the Mississippi, and in the rich bottoms of the Missouri, they scarcely differ from those of the Old World; but in that portion of the Wisconsin territory which is bounded by the Illinois to the south, and the Wisconsin river to the north, a large variety of Indian mounds has been discovered, which vary in a singular manner from those of the Old World. Their configuration appears at first to resemble the sites or ground-plan and foundation lines of former buildings; but they are really designed as rude representations and outlines of certain animals, and even of the human figure, in addition to those tumuli which are of the usual circular or quadrangular form. They occur round and about the high lands which skirt the four lakes, forming a species of alto relievo of gigantic proportions. At one spot at least a hundred of them may be counted, and along the great Indian war-path they often mingle with the circular mounds in ranges or tiers, several deep on both sides, forming a cemetery of sufficient magnitude apparently for the chiefs and warriors and their descendants of a whole tribe. About eighteen miles to the west of the four lakes, in an elevated open prairie, occurs a singular group, containing the effigies of six quadrupeds, six quadrangular mounds, one circular tumulus, one human figure, and one circle or ring, which may have been formed by These effigies vary from ninety to one hundred and fifty feet in length; and although one form is most prevalent, yet it is not the only one. In the large group before referred to, and forming a very important portion of it, is the representation of a human figure lying in a direction east and west, the head towards the west, and the arms and legs extended. Its length is one hundred and twenty-five feet; and the length from the extremity of one arm to that of the other is one hundred and fortyfive feet. The body, or trunk, is thirty feet in breadth the head twenty-five feet; and its elevation above the general surface of the prairie is about six feet. These monuments are covered with the same green carpet of prairie grass, intermingled with bright and brilliant flowers, as the prairie itself. They all most probably contain bones: twelve of the mounds which were opened contained bones in a very brittle decomposed state, having roots and fibres growing through them; one was excavated through its whole length of one hundred and fifty feet, and bones were found abundantly | large scale. There existed a turtle tribe of Indians, in every part. The number of individuals buried in who had that animal for its badge. some of these earth-works must have been very great, and each one may have proved the cemetery of a family. It was evident, in the construction of these mounds, that the body or bones of the deceased were originally laid upon the surface of the ground, and the earth was then heaped upon them. No appearances occur of graves being dug in the first instance beneath the surface. Upon the summits of many of the original tumuli, it is evident that the remains of other deceased persons have been subsequently placed; and a new heaping up of soil thereon contributed to augment its former height. Finally, the wandering Menominee, or Winnebago, the last Indian occupant of the prairie, excavates a grave upon the summit, places the body therein in a sitting or reclining position, and strongly defends it with pickets. consin river, called " English Prairie," are earth-works At the great savannah on the south bank of the Wiswhich bear some resemblance to the Roman letter T. At Crawfordsville, on the Fox river, mounds are de in length, generally about four feet high, and resembling lizards, alligators, and flying dragons. There seems to be a material difference in the construction and position of the mounds in Georgia and Florida, compared with those of Ohio, Kentucky, &c. in the south. In East Tennessee they occur of an exact The square and pyramidal mounds occur most frequently rectangular form. In Ohio the conical form is most prevalent. We have already noticed as a remarkable fact, that while the mounds and earth-works of the Old World pre-scribed as being from three to seventeen rods (280 feet) sent an almost identical similarity, those now under notice present a great variety. In one instance was observed an effigy of an animal ninety feet long, placed at the foot and at the point of a remarkable perpendicular bluff of coarse friable sandstone, fronting a rich meadow, which in olden times was doubtless the favourite resort of the buffalo. In front of this bluff, and inclosing the effigy, is a long earth-work in an exact straight line, about two hundred yards in length, having an opening in the centre opposite the animal. The position of this earth-work would seem to indicate that it was designed for the purpose of defence or fortification against an enemy: perhaps it was an outwork to the stronghold in the rear formed by the bluff itself. The great Indian road skirts along the outer or southern side of this embankment In the accompanying figure are represented two animal-shaped mounds, between which passes the same Indian path, at the distance of six miles west of the four lakes. These figures represent a different species of animal to those already traced. In one instance-only one-they are depicted with the appendage of a tail; the others are tailless, and whether in the present case this deviation from the usual configuration resulted from the caprice of the Indian artists, or really depicted some beast more favoured by nature than his contemporaries, it is not easy to decide. They are respectively a hundred and twenty and a hundred and two feet long, and perhaps may have been intended to represent foxes. Beyond the Wisconsin territory, on the north side of the river of that name, in the region still held by the Winnebagos, occur innumerable mounds, both of the circular and most of the other forms already noticed. In one position near the river, a group of six of these appears to represent birds, probably the eagle, or perhaps the crane, which was the ancient badge of the chiefs of a once powerful tribe of Chippewas. Forms supposed to represent turtles also occur, and are on an equally mounds constantly occur, arranged, for the most part, In the region of the Mississippi, immense numbers of systematically, and containing human bones, and other ruins of ancient dwellings, constructed, on the old traces of man. It has been suggested that they may be Mexican plan, of large bricks, and were covered with earth, which, mouldering down, left mounds in such abundance that the traveller seldom loses sight of them. It is stated that, in an ancient walled town near Columbia, in Tennessee, the ruins of many houses are seen; they are of various sizes, from ten to thirty feet in diameter, and all of circular form. No precise position with respect to the points of the compass seems to have determined the construction of the Wisconsin mounds; and in one case, a single member of a group of animals has been placed at right angles to the rest. The selection of site appears to have been influenced mainly by the contiguity to the lakes and principal rivers, and to those great lines of internal communication which from an unknown period traversed this fine country. By this arrangement the greatest publicity was given to the burial-places of the distinguished dead; to the simple yet permanent monuments erected to commemorate their fame and rank, and perhaps with the design to perpetuate the honour and to flatter the vanity of some of the many tribes and branches into which this great Indian family appears, from remote times, to have been subdivided. It is unsafe to reason on the origin of these remarkable tumuli. In most cases the present wandering tribes of Indians are entirely incompetent to give any account of them, or to furnish the slightest tradition respecting the ancient possessors of the soil. Successive tribes have occupied by turns the region of country where they abound, and some of them do not erect permanent monuments of this character to the memory of their dead. To a far different race, assuredly, and to a far distant period, must we look, to trace the authors of these singular mounds; not to the degenerate tribes which are retiring before the power and intelligence of the white man of the Old World. Who were they who left almost imperishable memorials on the soil, attesting the superiority of their race? Nation, and tribe, and family succeed each other, and for a while occupy the land. They vanish in succession, and leave few or no traces. Yet, of this unknown people, thousands and tens of thousands of monuments remain, which will scarcely be obliterated as long as the earth retains its present form. Viewing these ancient memorials of a by-gone people as commemorative of the dead, they probably served in some way to designate the respective tribes or branches to which the deceased belonged. Indian families, and even tribes or branches, are distinguished from each other by badges, indicating particular animals or objects, or by devices symbolical of some memorable natural event or peculiarity. Thus, also, individuals among the more remarkable of their warriors assumed similar devices commemorative of personal prowess, of success in the chase, or in war; and were further distinguished among their friends and adherents by titles equally characteristic. And this is Indian heraldry; as useful, as commemorative, as inspiriting to the red warrior and his race, as that when, in the days of the crusades, the banner and the pennon, the device and the motto, the crest, the shield, and the war-cry exercised their potent influence on European chivalry. It was not by individuals only that such appellations were borne. Many tribes of North America adopted, and even yet retain, for their badges, the simple national objects whose names they also bear. The Shawanese nation, for example, was originally divided into twelve tribes, all of which were subdivided into families or clans of the Eagle, the Bear, the Turtle, &c. If the southern Indians were similarly subdivided and distinguished, it does not appear improbable that the earth-works in which their dead were deposited, and which resemble certain animal figures were in fact designed as representations of those national or family badges, and consequently pointed out the burial-place of the members of those particular tribes. This ingenious and very plausible theory is due to Mr. R. C. Taylor, an American antiquarian writer, who has surveyed and delineated a large number of the mounds and earth-works which he describes, and from whose account our information has been abridged. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. VII. JULY. GREEN mid brown earth's alternate rows, That flit from flower to flower, and sip Of noontide show their gleaming sails, THE above lines describe the appearance of the fields during the month of July; but the well-cultivated garden presents a still richer prospect, as it respects the variety, and the luxuriant growth of its productions. Without taking into account the tempting clusters of the cherry, or the rich-looking produce of the apricottree; without giving special attention to the bright and wholesome strawberries, still peeping abundantly from their leafy bed, there is a vigorous fulness of growth about the ordinary garden vegetables that betokens the full maturity of the year, and the cultivator has little more to do than to gather in the fruits of the earth as they successively present themselves, while at the same time he keeps an eye to the future, and carefully attends to a due succession of crops, by small sowings at stated intervals. In the early part of the month he probably sows brocoli seed, for late spring supply. Also kidney-beans and endive, the latter to be sown also in the third week. Three descriptions of peas may be sown twice during the month, namely, the Frame peas, Charlton, and Knight's. It may appear late for these sowings, but gardeners are now aware that with good management, a succession of this delicious vegetable may be kept up, not only during the summer but till October, or in some years till the middle of November. If it is wished to get a crop of peas up quickly, and the weather be very hot and dry, it is a good plan to place the peas in water over night, and allow them to soak till the morning Also to make the drills ready to receive them, and to give them also an abundant watering over night. Planted in this way, and with a repetition of the watering, if necessary, the crop will soon be above ground. Another sowing of mazagan and white-blossomed beans may also be made for late crops. Cabbage and turnip seed may also be sown any time during the month. For the main crop of turnipsa sowing may be made in July, and again about the middle of August. This valuable vegetable has been long known in this country, but did not receive the attention it deserves, especially as a field crop, until many years after its advantages in this respect had been fully proved by the inhabitants of the Low Countries. But since we have become acquainted with its importance and virtues, a remarkable revolution has been effected in our modes of agriculture; for, as it has been truly observed, not only does it enable the farmer to supply the consumer with fresh meat during the winter, instead of the salted food upon which our ancestors had chiefly to depend, but it also partially supplies the place of fallow; it imparts to the land a degree of fertility, which ensures, under proper management, a succession of crops for the following years of the rotation. "It is, indeed, the sheet anchor of light-soil cultivation, and the basis of the alternate system of husbandry, to which every class of the community is so much indebted." Such being the importance of the turnip crop, it becomes us to dwell a little longer on the history and cultivation of this vegetable. It does not appear that the ancients were regardless of this root. Columella was acquainted with its value, and recommended that it should be abundantly cultivated on farms, because, he said, "those roots which are not wanted for the table will be eaten by the cattle." Pliny concurs with this writer in declaring, that turnips were esteemed among the Romans as coming next to corn in utility and value. The best were produced in the country of the Sabines, and the Roman citizens paid a sestertius, or two-pence, each for these roots. Moderately cold and moist regions appear best to suit the growth of the turnip, and it is therefore doubted whether the statement of Pliny respecting the enormous size to which turnips attained in İtaly, is not to be regarded as an exaggeration. He sneaks of single roots weighing as much as forty pounds. That hot countries are not, however, wholly prejudicial to the growth of this vegetable, is proved by the fact that at Benares in Hindostan, a latitude of about 26°, turnips and other garden vegetables are raised in considerable plenty by the natives, and exposed to sale in the bazaars, principally for European purchasers, who gladly welcome these plants of home association, although they are comparatively tasteless in that climate. Dr. Clarke informs us, that in Russia turnips are eaten as fruit, and highly relished by all classes. In the houses of the nobility sliced turnip is offered to the guests on a silver salver with brandy, as a preliminary to a more substantial meal. "The first nobleman of the empire," says this writer, "when dismissed by his sovereign from attendance be his person, may upon found throughout the day with his neck bare, his beard lengthened, his body wrapped in a sheep's skin, eating raw turnips, and drinking quass." Linnæus found that even in Lapland this vegetable is cultivated, and succeeds tolerably well. He noticed the excessive fondness of the Laplanders for this root. In seasons of scarcity, they will part with a whole cheese in exchange for a single turnip. Worledge, who wrote his Mystery of Husbandry in 1669, speaks of the use made of this vegetable in Holland, and says that the Dutch were accustomed to slice their turnips with the tops, and rape-seed cakes, and grains, &c., and made mashes for the cows therewith, which they gave to them warm, and which the cows ate "like hogs." He complains of the deficiency which existed in English husbandry in his time, as it respected turnip culture, yet he acknowledges, that turnips, though usually nourished in gardens, and properly garden plants, were also to the very great advantage of the husbandman, sown in his fields in several places in England, not only for culinary uses, as about London and other great cities, but also for the food of cattle. Yet this was not to any considerable extent. The old herbalist Gerard, likewise says, that turnips were not much grown in England in his time, except for domestic purposes, and then principally in the light sandy grounds round the village of Hackney, near London; and that they were brought from thence to the cross in Cheapside by the women of the village. The immense loads of this vegetable now conveyed to the different London markets, form a striking contrast to the state of things in Gerard's time, and prove that the cultivation and consumption of the turnip have now multiplied to an extraordinary extent. ounce of seed, will produce a large number of roots. After the seed is regularly and lightly raked in, the surface is levelled over with the back of the spade. As soon as the plants have formed their rough leaf, they must be hoed out to the distance of at least six inches apart. There are many varieties of turnip; but those considered best for general culture are the Early White Dutch, or Stubble, the Early Stone, the Yellow Dutch, the French Navet, and the Norfolk White. The surest variety for winter use is the Yellow Dutch, which will bear severe frost, and yet preserve its flavour and nutritious qualities. The quality, more than the size, is considered in the varieties cultivated in gardens; but in field culture the object is naturally to get the largest amount of nutriment for the cattle. The French turnip, or navet, differs from the rest in shape, being somewhat of the size and appearance of the carrot. It is of excellent flavour, and is in high repute on the Continent. It is stated in the Horticultural Transactions, that in France, as well as in Germany, few great dinners are set on the table without this vegetable appearing under some form, either enriching the gravies and stews, or prepared as a viand by itself. When used, the outer rind is not peeled off, but merely scraped, since the flavour for which the vegetable is so much prized, resides chiefly in that part. This kind of turnip was cultivated far more extensively in this country a century ago, than it is at present. Large quantities of it are grown in the sandy fields about Berlin, and also near Altona, from whence it is sometimes imported to the London market. The roots of this turnip are generally served whole at table. One great advantage connected with the French turnip is, that it does not need the aid of manure in its cultivation. The wild navew, or rape, is an open colewort with glaucous green leaves; it is cultivated in gardens as spring greens, the tops being first cut off as in the case of borecole; and then the young side shoots. Many country people and cottagers take delight in this vegetable; it is a kind of staple in the gardens of Wiltshire and Somersetshire, for it supplies the family with greens for six weeks or two months in the early spring. The seeds should be sown in drills in July and August, for transplanting late in the autumn. Turnips afford a cheap and wholesome vegetable in our day to thousands. With respect to vegetables, the diet of the lower classes has been materially varied and benefited by the improvements of late years. Perhaps the advantage of being able to vary the diet continually, is not sufficiently estimated. People are not aware of the salubrious effects of the varieties of vegetables now cultivated, especially in a nation where salt meat forms a favourite article of food. It is gratifying to see the profusion of vegetables poured into the metropolis, in particular, where a fresh and varied diet is so needful, and it is still more so to find these vegetables, (and even A curious calculation on the rapid increase of the articles of luxury unknown to our ancestors, rhubarb for turnip root was published a few years since in the Phiinstance,) offered at such a low price, and in such un-losophical Transactions, by which it appears that one failing abundance, that very few persons need be deprived of the advantage of procuring them. Turnips not only rank among the most esteemed culinary vegetables, but are also essential to the fine flavour of several of our best soups and broths. The juice of turnips is sometimes used medicinally for the relief of coughs, colds, and similar disorders. For this purpose it is extracted by baking, and mixed with honey. The turnip is found growing wild about the edges of our fields; but though common, it is not considered to be a native of this country. The soil suited to the cultivation of this plant should be finely pulverized, and rather sandy. The manure should never be applied in a fresh state for this crop. Of the power of the turnip to thrive in poor soils, Sir H. Davy says, "A small quantity of finely-divided matter is sufficient to fit a soil for the production of turnips; and I have seen a tolerable crop on a soil containing eleven parts out of twelve sand." In garden culture, turnips may be sown on almost any piece of open ground which has been well manured and worked with the spade. Sowings are usually commenced towards the end of March or beginning of April, and are continued in May and June. The fourth sowing for a principal crop is made late in July or early in August. In sowing turnips, the oed or beds may conveniently be made about four or five feet wide, on which the seed should be scattered rather thinly. Half an ounce, or an ounce of turnip seed contains fourteen or fifteen thousand single seeds, and therefore one seed would weigh one-fourteenth or one-fifteen-thousandth part of an ounce; and assuming its growth to be always uniform, a turnip seed may increase fifteen times its own weight in a minute! By actual experiment made on moss or peat ground, turnips have been proved to increase in growth fifteen thousand nine hundred and ninety times the weight of their seeds each day they stood upon it. The enemies affecting the turnip crop are numerous, and demand the gardener's constant attention during the early stages of the growth of the plant; these enemies have been noticed at length in the Saturday Magazine, Vol. XXII., pp. 109, 127, 157, and 173, where the usual remedies adopted in field culture for their extermination are also detailed, and which, with some modifications, may be also employed in gardens. In addition to the numerous uses to which the turnip is now applied, there is another, only desirable in times of extreme scarcity of corn. It is recorded that in the years 1629 and 1630, when a dearth prevailed in England, very good, white, lasting, and wholesome bread was made of boiled turnips, deprived of their moisture by pressure, and then kneaded with an equal quantity of wheaten flour, the whole forming what was called turnip bread. This bread could scarcely be distinguished by the eye from a wheaten loaf; neither did the smell much betray it, especially when cold. An amusing anecdote of gastronomic skill, as applied to the turnip, is given in the Curiosities of Literature, where it is stated that the king of Bithynia, in some expedition against the Scythians, in the winter, and at a great distance from the sea, had a violent longing for a small fish called Aphy-a pilchard, a herring, or an anchovy. His cook cut a turnip to the perfect imitation of its hape; then fried it in oil, salted, and well powdered it with the grains of a dozen black poppies, whereupon, his majesty's taste was so exquisitely deceived, that he praised the root to his guest as an excellent fish. The Swedish turnip, though much more hardy than either of the other sorts, and also attaining a larger size, is seldom raised as a garden vegetable, as it is harsh and disagreeable in flavour; but it is most extensively cultivated in fields, as food for cattle. The remaining operations for the month of July, are the transplantation of cabbage, savoy, and brocoli, some into nursery beds, and others, according to their growth, into final plantations. Celery is taken early in the month from seed beds into others of rich earth, where it is planted four inches apart, and watered regularly. Full-grown plants are placed in trenches for blanching. Onion beds now require attention. The stems that begin to turn colour are bent down, and the ripe onions, shallots, and garlic, are taken up, and exposed to the sun on a dry spot of ground. Cos, Silesia, and other lettuces, are transplanted from the seed beds. The sticking of peas and scarlet runners; the hoeing-up of advancing crops; the removal of every description of litter; the watering of small plants and recently removed crops; with the gathering in of herbs, &c.; afford constant employment to the gardener, and preserve the general good appearance of the kitchen garden. No. VII., page 56. 1. R. to K. Kt. eighth sq. chg. 1. Kt. from K. B. eighth to K. Kt. 2. Kt. from Q. B. eighth to Q. Kt. sixth sq. 3. R. to Q. B. seventh sq. 4. R. to Q. B. eighth sq. MATE. 1. K. to R. fifth sq. 2. K. to Kt. fifth sq. 3. Kt. takes K. B. 4. K. to R. fifth sq. 5. Kt. takes B. giving CHECKM page 112. 1. K. to Q. sq. 2. K. home. 3. K. to Q. sq. 1. K. to Q. fourth sq. 1 Kt. to Q. Kt. seventh sq. 2. Q. to K. fourth sq. MATE. No. XII. has been so recently submitted to the student's notice, that we reserve the solution. The two problems given at page 21 are accompanied by accurate solutions. A Correspondent, who writes that he cannot understand them, is reminded that a pawn arriving at its eighth square can be exchanged for a Queen, or a Rook, or a Bishop, or a Knight. If, in either of these two positions, White claim a Queen, he stalemates his adversary. In the notice of Stalemate, at page 172, six problems are given, of which the two last only are solved; the solutions to the first four are as follows:PROBLEM I., page 173. 1. Q. R. to Q. eighth sq. chg. 2. K. R. to its third sq. 3. R. to Q. third sq. chg 1. K. to Q. B. sixth sq. 2. Q. takes R. 3. P. or Q. takes R., and White is stalemated. If, instead of taking the R at the third move, Black were to move his K., White would win the game, but not easily. In Problem VI., page 174, the only object of White is to draw the game, and of course it matters not, in actual play, how it is drawn; whether by a stalemate, or a perpetual check. In the solution which accompanies this problem, Black has some choice as to the method of drawing the game; but a Correspondent, signed W., has favoured us with the following ingenious solution, in which the moves of the Black are so far forced, that ha loses the game unless he consent to give stalemate. If, at the third move, Black capture the R., the object of White is accomplished in a fewer number of moves than by the other methods. JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND, LONDON. |