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POUSSIN AND HIS WORKS.
I.

Few artists present a more instructive example than
NICHOLAS POUSSIN, of diligence and patient perse-
verance, which under circumstances of peculiar diffi-
culty, enabled him fully to triumph over the various
obstacles by which caprice, bad taste, and malevolence,
attempted to arrest his course. "He did not fix his
standard on the highest pinnacle of art, but having selected
a more humble station, it is his great praise that he accom-
plished, more completely than almost any other artist, the
objects which it was his ambition to attain. From his
earliest years he appears to have been blessed with a calm
philosophical mind, free from strong passions, but replete
with energy, and with an amiable and contented disposition,
which enabled him to live in amity with his fellow men,
to circumscribe his wants, and to concentrate the whole
force of his mind upon his professional pursuits. These
rare endowments appear, at an early age, to have afforded
him an almost intuitive power of discovering that line of
art best suited to his capacity, from the strength and sim-
plicity of which he was never led aside, either by the
blandishments of colouring and effect, or the more dignified
attractions of the highest departments of painting. From
the study of the works of almost every artist of eminence,
he appears, indeed, to have obtained occasionally useful
hints, which he dexterously interwove with his own pecu-
liar style, but without in the slightest degree diminishing
its originality. His pictures, with the exception of those
of a very few distinguished artists, possess greater unison,
in their respective parts, than the productions of any other
painter. Whether his subject partook of the gay, the
lively, or severe, he uniformly made it his successful care
not to impair the general character, that ought to pervade
the whole, by the introduction of extraneous or incon-
sistent matter.
Those artists who are anxious
to acquire the general rudiments of art, will derive one
great advantage from serious reflection on the works and
example of Poussin; whatever they may acquire from him
may be considered as real gain, for they will, at least, have
nothing of it to unlearn in their after progress*."

NICHOLAS POUSSIN was descended from a noble family of Picardy, established in the compté of Soissons. His father left his country in consequence of civil war, and followed the fortunes of the King of Navarre, afterwards Henry the Fourth; but the poverty of the royal treasury during that unhappy period, had thrown all the expenses of a military life upon himself. On the establishment of peace, the elder Poussin settled at Andelys, a little town situate among the pleasant hills on the banks of the Seine, in Normandy, where in the year 1592, he married, and in June, 1594, the subject of the present memoir was born.

The early history of Nicholas Poussin resembles that of many other artists; he was led, as it were, by an irresistible impulse to copy the forms of natural objects, covering his books, and the white walls of his school and his home, with his sketches, and constantly incurring the censure of his schoolmaster and parents, who lamented that a boy of so much talent should be continually wasting his time in such trivial, profitless pursuits.

But it happened, fortunately, that during the boyhood of young Poussin, an artist of some repute, Quentin Varin by name, came to reside at Andelys. He discovered in the infantile attempts of Poussin, some indications of genius, and encouraged his inclination to devote all his energies to the arts. But the elder Poussin did not share in the enthusiasm of his son; on the contrary, he regarded the life of an artist as one incapable of producing either profit or happiness; but by degrees, the performances of Varin having greatly

'The above excellent remarks occur in a notice of Mrs. Graham's Memoir of the Life of Nicholas Poussin, contained in Blackwood's

Edinburgh Magazine, 1821. The materials for our notice are mostly

derived from M. Landon's voluminous work, Les Vies et Euvres des Peintres. We have also to acknowledge our obligations to Mrs. Graham's excellent Memoir.

increased his reputation in Andelys, this circumstance, joined to the pressing entreaties of Nicholas, at length overcame the reluctance of the father to permit his son to follow the bent of his inclination, and he was permitted to become the pupil of Varin.

The great interest which Varin took in the progress of his young pupil, and the rational course of study which he prescribed, had, doubtless, considerable influence on the future success of Poussin. But after a time, the studies of Varin and the little town of Andelys, afforded no models that could satisfy his genius. He felt that greater excellence might be attained, but that the means of attainment were in a distant place. his father's consent, he set out for Paris without the One of his biographers states, that in despair of getting knowledge of any one. This, however, is contradicted; first, by the general character of Poussin, and the scrupulous regard with which he fulfilled all the duties of life, whether as son, husband, or citizen; secondly, by the fact that Poussin was able to procure the assistance of masters on his first arrival at Paris.

Poussin was eighteen years old when he entered Paris. His first master was Ferdinand Elle, a Fleming, who enjoyed considerable reputation as a portrait painter; but he soon quitted him, and became a pupil of L'Allemand, who, though superior to Elle, soon found himself far behind Poussin in all but the mechanical part of the art, and their connexion did not last many weeks. Poussin was full of ardour to enter upon the bold and difficult career of historical painting, and

could not devote his time to the assistance of those who painted nothing but portraits, whose highest merit was to produce striking resemblances, and who knew nothing of the ideal beauty which Poussin was striving to appreciate and to secure.

Poussin's means of subsistence were exhausted, when

he fortunately succeeded in forming a friendship with a young nobleman of Poitou, who was then pursuing his fond of the arts, and entertained so great a regard for studies at the university of Paris. This gentleman was Poussin, that he furnished him with the means of prosecuting his studies.

With the greatest eagerness for instruction, Poussin sought in vain for masters who would confirm and realize to him the exalted idea which he had formed of the art of painting. At this epoch a bad taste in painting pervaded France; the school of Raffaelle had been extinguished by civil wars, and that of the Caracchi, which in Italy had begun to restore good taste and correct principles, had not yet exerted any influence north of the Alps.

But Poussin was not left altogether without aid. Through the kindness of his young patron, he made the acquaintance of Courtois, mathematician to the king, assembled there a beautiful collection of engravings by who occupied apartments in the Louvre, and who had Mark Antonio and others, after Raffaelle and Giulo Romano, together with a number of original drawings by those masters, all of which he generously lent to

Poussin.

This treasure afforded the young artist a glimpse of that light he had so ardently longed for, and taught him to conceive his subjects nobly and historically. His love of the beautiful not having been moulded by the systems of schools, nor submitted to the contracted view of a master, he proceeded with the chaste style which distinguishes his works. force of genius to form his taste for that grand and He needed

not to be instructed in the beauties of the masterthem; and often afterwards talked of this event as one pieces now before him; he eagerly and carefully copied

of the most fortunate of his life.

Poussin's young patron being recalled by his mother to his country seat, engaged the artist to follow him. He wished to embellish his house with pictures, and the grateful artist acceded to this request with joy, as

1844.]

he now saw an opportunity of putting into practice the lessons which he had first learned from the works of But the mother of his patron the Italian masters. seems to have interfered with the project, so that it was never accomplished; she even conceived a great dislike towards Poussin; made his abode in her house uncomfortable; set him about various menial employments; and finally succeeded in exciting in him so much disgust, that he quitted the house, and set out on foot for Paris. The journey was long and wearisome; Poussin's only means of subsistence were obtained by working at his art in the different towns through which he passed; selling small pictures in distemper at very low prices; But and painting the borders and ornaments of rooms. his earnings were so inconsiderable, and his labour so severe, that on reaching Paris he was seized with a dangerous illness, the consequence of over-exertion, and bad or scanty food. This illness left him so weak, that in order to restore him he was advised again to breathe his native air. He therefore returned to Andelys, and remained in his father's family nearly a year, during which period he continued to paint in distemper, or in oil, at very low prices.

It appears that at this period artists were constantly moving about, earning their bread by seeking employment in villages and towns, for a few days or weeks at a time. On leaving his father's house, Poussin embarked on this wandering and painful life, sometimes occupying a position little above that of a house-painter, at other times painting portraits; but rarely historical subjects. His great object was to amass sufficient money to take him to Rome. All his hopes were for the attainment of this object, and all his wanderings lay in the direction of Italy. On one occasion he had actually succeeded in getting as far as Florence, but was forced to return, probably because his purse was exhausted; and the pictures which had some value, however small, in the country towns of France, were regarded as valueless in Italy, at a time when painting was in such perfection that the best pictures only could be sold to any advantage.

On his return to Paris his friend Philippe de Champage, with whom he lodged, and who was assisting Duchesne in the ornamental painting of the Luxembourg Palace, introduced Poussin to his employer. Duchesne being glad of so able and ready an assistant, employed him for some tim; and when Poussin's services were no longer required, he again set out on the road to Rome. But this time he had not proceeded farther than Lyons when he was detained by an illness which cost him all his little savings. Poussin afterwards related, that having paid all, he had but one crown left "Take in his purse, and he upbraided Fortune, saying, "Take this also!" and spent it that very evening on a supper with a few companions, who greatly admired his gay philosophy. A merchant of Lyons, however, supplied him with money, on condition that he should paint a Poussin accordingly number of pictures for him. remained at Lyons until he had fulfilled his undertaking, and had also earned enough to take him to Paris.

Thus compelled to defer his journey to Italy, Poussin sought employment in Paris, where, in the year 1623, the Jesuits, wishing to celebrate with splendour the canonization of St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier, determined to have a series of pictures executed, which should embody the miracles of these their patron saints. Poussin executed six designs in distemper in as many days. His long practice in distemper painting gave him a decided superiority in readiness over the other artists employed on the occasion, and when the pictures came to be exhibited, although the details had been neglected on account of the haste with which they had been executed, they excited the greatest admiration, on account of the grandeur of conception and elegance of design displayed in them, and obtained the preference

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over all the others, though executed by the best artists
then in Paris.

Poussin's reputation as a painter of genius was now
established, and it procured for him the acquaintance
of many of the literary men of the time, and among
others that of the poet Marino, commonly called the
This gentleman, who was familiar
Chevalier Marini.
with all the great works of art, appreciated the merits of
The infirmities of Marino
Poussin, sought his acquaintance, and gave him an
apartment in his house.
forced him to keep his bed, so that the society of Pous.
sin was a great resource to him; and Poussin also de-
rived the greatest advantage from the instructive and
animated conversation of his amiable protector, and
from the books which they read together. By such
means Poussin acquired a more complete knowledge
He also, under
of the Latin and Italian classics.
the direction of Marino, made a number of designs for
the works of that poet, and particularly for his poem
of Adonis.

To the studies of this period of his life, has been referred Poussin's predilection for compositions where nymphs, and fairies, and bacchanals, are the subjects; compositions in which he certainly excelled, and of which Reynolds says that no painter was ever better qualified to paint, not only from his being eminently skilled in the knowledge of the ceremonies, customs, and habits of the ancients, but from his being so well acquainted with the different characters which those who invented them gave to their allegorical figures.

Poussin also diligently applied himself to history and biography, transcribing and translating large portions from different authors for his own use; and he sought the conversation of learned and ingenious men, whereby to improve his taste and knowledge.

When Marino returned to Rome he would have taken Poussin with him, but the principle of honesty, which regulated all the actions of our artist's life, prevented him from accepting this tempting offer. He was under engagements to paint some pictures, among which was one for the Goldsmiths' Company, who every year presented a picture to the cathedral of Notre Dame.

Having honourably fulfilled all his engagements, Poussin followed his patron to Rome, and arrived there in the spring of 1624

THERE is one class of dangers pertaining alike to every profession, every branch of study, every kind of distinct pursuit. I mean the danger in each, to him who is devoted to it, of over-rating its importance as compared with others, and again of unduly extending its province. To a man who has no enlarged views, no general cultivation of mind, and no familiar intercourse with the enlightened and the worthy of other classes besides his own, the result must be more or less of the several forms of narrow-mindedness.

To apply to all questions, on all subjects, the same principles and rules of judging that are suitable to the particular questions and subjects about which he is especially conversant;-to bring in those subjects and questions on all occasions, suitable or unsuitable, like the painter Horace alludes to, who introduced a cypress tree into the picture of a shipwreck ;-to regard his own particular pursuit as the one important and absorbing interest;-to look on all other ter more or less to that;-to view the present state and past events, transactions, and occupations, chiefly as they minishistory of the world chiefly in reference to that;-and to feel a clannish attachment to the members of that particular profession or class he belongs to, as a body or class, (an attachment, by the bye, which is often limited to the collective class, and not accompanied with kindly feelings or less an alienation of feeling from those of other classes:-towards the individual members of it,) and to have more all these, and many other such, are symptoms of that narrow-mindedness which is to be found, alike, in all who do not carefully guard themselves against it, whatever may be the profession or department of study of each. --ARCHBISHOP WHATELY.

755-2

THE NATURAL HISTORY AND MANAGEMENT OF CAGE-BIRDS.

III.

THE BULLFINCH. (Loxia Pyrrhula, Linn.)

It is a curious mossy cell

Woven with twigs and grass and hair, And 'mid the moss six nestlings dwell, Concealed by apple-blossoms fair.

""Tis Bully's nest!" Bethia said, "His head of glossy jet I spy, His downy breast of softest red;

Poor bird! I hear his whooping cry."

Let us

THOUGH the Bullfinch, as a tenant of woods and copses, is very generally distributed throughout Britain, and in other parts of Europe, yet it is perhaps more rarely seen or heard, during the greater part of the year, than any other equally common bird. It is attached to sheltered and well-wooded districts, which it seldom leaves, unless compelled by necessity to do so. The thickest and most impenetrable forests, especially the mountainous forests of Germany, sometimes afford it a retreat; but small woods, groves, and copses, likewise form its dwellingplace, and from these it will occasionally venture to approach our gardens, where it is accused of doing mischief to fruit-trees, by destroying the buds. take the opinion of naturalists on this point. Mr. Wood, in his British Song Birds, remarks, "That bullfinches do destroy a tolerably large portion of the buds of our fruittrees there can be no doubt; but then it is probable that only those buds which are infested with insects are attacked; and if so, its services in the garden must be incalculable. In confinement, it will eat any buds; but in its wild state, it will be observed that the vegetable portion is rejected, and the inclosed insect or grub is the object of its search. That such is the case, I have ascertained almost to a certainty, from finding that some trees are passed over without the slightest injury, while others are not quitted as long as a bud remains; and others, again, undergo a selection. I have repeatedly observed it examining the buds with great care, and am convinced that it does not indiscriminately destroy the produce of trees. It has been remarked by some, that the finest trees are usually selected as the scene of its depredations. But this, if anything, is in favour of my argument, as the insects may reasonably be supposed to make their choice as well as the birds, and the birds only attack such trees as are infested by these insect pests."

So much on the side of the bullfinch have we from this naturalist, and he is not solitary in his opinion, being supported by the compiler of Bewick and several other writers; but a contrary statement is made by other authorities, and is, we fear, too well substantiated to leave much room for doubt as to the bird's delinquency. In the Supplement to Cuvier's work, and in Bechstein's History of Birds, it is distinctly stated that the bullfinch feeds on buds. Mudie particularizes the early cherry, the plum, and such trees as have a good supply of farinaceous matter accumulated in the buds, as the especial objects of attack; also the hawthorn, birch, and even the pine tribe, where much dexterity is displayed by the bullfinch in separating the core of the bud from the scales and turpentine. Rennie was disposed, from casual observation, to consider that insects, and not buds, were the object of search; but having positive

fact to prove that seed-eating birds do eat buds, (for instance, the house sparrow, which even in mild winters will destroy the buds of currant bushes,) he no longer maintained his first opinion. As long ago as 1799, Dr. Townson proved the bud-devouring propensities of bullfinches. In his Tracts, he gives the following account of the result of his examination of the stomachs of two of these birds which had been shot in a cherrytree. "Exclusively of a few grains of sand and some small pebbles, I found nothing but embryo flowers. I could discover, with the assistance of my lens, all the parts of the flowers. The mischief these two little epicures had done, and probably at one breakfast, is incredible. From the quantity of buds I found in their stomachs, each of which was composed of four or five flowers, I think they had not eaten less than a thousand a-piece." Mr. Knapp also speaks very explicitly on this point, in his Journal of a Naturalist. "The idea," he says, "that this bird selects only such buds as contain the embryo of an insect to feed on it, and thus free us of a latent colony of caterpillars, is not correct. It may confer this benefit accidentally, but not with intention. The mischief effected by bullfinches is greater than commonly imagined, and the ground beneath the bush or tree on which they have been feeding is commonly strewed with shattered buds, the rejectments of their banquet; and we are thus deprived of a large portion of our best fruits by this assiduous pillager, this pick-a-bud,' as the gardeners call it, without any redeeming virtues to compensate our loss." bullfinch have made the bird well known among garThe thefts which are thus established against the deners and horticulturists in those retired districts which are liable to its visits; while the beauty of the bird, and the sweetness of its acquired song, render it equally familiar to the lovers of caged birds. It will therefore be unnecessary to give a lengthened description of its shape and plumage. Its thick, but compact, body is expressive of strength and energy; its head and bill have been compared to those of the handsomest of the hawks; its bright black eye to that of the prying magpie. It has great command of itself on the perch, and its dif ferent attitudes are very elegant. The head and part of the throat are of a rich velvet black; the upper parts of the body deep grey; the wings and tail black, varied with iron-blue; the under parts of the body of a fine vermilion, passing into white towards the tail. The vermilion tinge is less vivid in the young than in the old bird, and in the females is supplied by reddish grey. in building its nest. Compared with other birds, the bullfinch is very late This work is not commenced till the latter end of April or beginning of May: the nest is composed of small branches interlaced on the outside, and lined with vegetable fibres or moss,-seldom, if ever, with feathers, wool, or other animal substances. In this are deposited from four to six eggs, bluish white, with brown or red spots, particularly towards the large end. These are hatched in fifteen days. High trees are seldom chosen as a place for the nest: the largest branches of those of lower and closer growth are selected in preference, and, in very retired spots, the shelter of a thick hedge is also a favourite nesting-place. Rennie says, that he has found these nests most commonly on the flat branch of a pine or silver fir, where the bird finds such an excellent foundation for the nest, that she uses very few sticks in its construction. But sometimes the bullfinch ventures into the immediate neighbourhood of houses, building in the thickest parts of the shrubbery, and carefully concealing itself throughout the season, so that it may easily escape the notice of an ordinary observer. When the female is on her nest, the male bird frequently sits for hours together on some branch in the vicinity, uttering a low plaintive note, or a more continued song, not very remarkable for its beauty. "Unless you see him singing," says Wood, "you miss the best part of the performance. But it is at all times difficult either to see or hear him, though I have achieved both. While singing, he puffs out his plumage, and makes strange contortions with his head.

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I have frequently watched this interesting manoeuvre; but no sooner does the bird find himself observed, than he shrinks to his ordinary size, alarms his mate, and with her, flies to a distant tree, where they remain out of sight, but within hearing, waiting the event, and sound ing their mellow note." The birds are very much attached to each other, and to their young. The old birds do not separate throughout the year; indeed, it seems probable that they pair for life, though their retired habits prevent the fact from being certainly known. The lateness of the season at which the young birds are hatched, unimportant as it may seem, is not without its cause, if it is true, as supposed by most writers, that the young are fed on grain, to the exclusion of insects and caterpillars, the usual food of other young birds of this order. Were they hatched earlier in the season, grain would scarcely be procurable. The plumage of the young birds is of a dark ash colour; the wings and tail brown, inclining to black. The males may be known at first by the red tinge on the breast; and if the nest has been captured with a view to depriving its inmates of their liberty, these only are selected. But bullfinches reared from the nest are seldom long-lived. It is impossible fully to supply to them their natural food; and they thus become liable to diseases which rarely affect

such birds as have been taken in a snare or net.

An

Singular varieties occur in the plumage of the bullfinch. Sometimes it is met with of an ashy or of a pure white, with dark spots on the back. Wood says, "I never heard of a specimen entirely white until presented with one, about two years ago, by a friend; it was shot in a hedge, where it was hopping about alone." other variety is jet black, but this seems to result from confinement in a dark place, and from feeding too exclusively on hemp-seed. This change is most noticed in female birds, and is in some individuals only partial. "I have seen one," says Bechstein, "in which the head and breast, as well as the upper and under parts of the body, were of a raven black, every other part of a dull black, with the wings and tail white; it was a very handsome bird, rather larger than a redbreast." Varieties in size also occur; but these are less remarkable.

The song of the bullfinch in a wild state, though low, and perhaps uninteresting, is not generally considered "very harsh and disagreeable," which are the terms used by Bechstein to describe it. On the contrary, those who have taken considerable pains to come within hearing of it, describe the voice of the male as soft and mellow, mournfully sweet, but so low that it can only be heard in the close vicinity. The listener has sometimes effected his object by lying down amongst long grass, in the neighbouroood of a nest. Partially concealed by Partially concealed by the herbage, he remains quite still, and the birds soon rise to the top of the bushes; when, if all is perfectly quiet, they testify no kind of alarm, but at the slightest motion they take wing, and are seen no more.

The

But the power of the bullfinch when caged, to acquire distinct tunes, is very surprising, and has made the bird the object of a considerable and lucrative trade. education of the bullfinch is best carried on in Germany, where the patience and ingenuity of the people are well calculated to surmount the difficulties attending the task. In the month of June, the young ones, which are sought for in the nests of wild birds, are taken when about ten days old, and brought up by a person whose care and attention to their wants render them completely docile. At the end of two months they begin to whistle, but their education commences earlier. The tune they are to learn is played to them repeatedly on a little instrument called a bird-organ, the notes of which nearly resemble those of a bullfinch. It has been proved that the birds learn more quickly, and remember the tune much better, if it is played to them at the time they receive their food, or immediately afterwards. It is essential that the birds should hear no other musical sounds than those it is

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intended they should imitate; and in order to get a very correct songster it is desirable early to separate him from the other birds, lest through his facility of imitation, he should spoil the tune, by intermingling with it the incorrect notes of other learners. These birds are sucn close imitators, that if the bird-organ be somewhat out of tune, the unpleasant effect is perpetuated in their song; hence some persons consider that the good whistling of a person who understands music is far pre ferable as a means of instruction, to the instrument in question. Dr. Stanley truly observes that "no school can be more diligently attended by its master, and no scholars more effectually trained to their own calling, than a seminary of bullfinches. As a general rule they are formed into classes of about six in each, and kept in a dark room, where food and music are administered at the same disposed to tune up, they are naturally inclined to copy the time; so that when the meal is ended, if the birds feel sounds which are so familiar to them. As soon as they begin to imitate a few notes, the light is admitted into the room, which still farther exhilarates their spirits and inclines them to sing. In some establishments the starving system is adopted, and the birds are not allowed food or light until they sing. When they have been under this course of instruction in classes for some time, they are committed singly to the care of boys, whose sole business it is to go on with their education. Each boy assiduously plays his organ from morning till night, for the instruction of the bird committed to his care, while the class-teacher goes his regular rounds, superintending the progress of his feathered pupils, and scolding or rewarding them in a manner which they perfectly understand, and strictly in accordance with the attention or the disregard they have shown to the in structions of the monitor. This round of teaching goes on which time the bird has acquired firmness, and is less likely unintermittingly for no less a period than nine months, by to forget or spoil the air by leaving out passages, or giving them in the wrong place. At the time of moulting, the best instructed birds are liable to lose the recollection of their tunes, and therefore require to have them frequently repeated at that time, otherwise all the previous labour will have been thrown away. There are celebrated schools for these land, and England, receive supplies of the little musicians. birds at Hesse and Fulda, from whence all Germany, HolIn some cases the birds have been taught to whistle three different airs, without spoiling or confusing them; but in general a simple air, with perhaps a little prelude, is as much as they can remember.

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"These little prodigies," says Bechstein, "would be more interesting and agreeable if their Hessian instructors possessed a little musical taste, but these are generally tradespeople, employed about the house with their different occupations and trades; and hymns, airs, and minuets of a hundred years old, public-house songs, or some learnt of their apprentices, in general compose the whole of their music." This shows that Bully is occasionally subjected to private tuition, and does not always enjoy the advantages offered by the training establishments just spoken of.

When a tune is thoroughly learned, the birds retain it for the rest of their lives; but in acquiring it at first, very different degrees of capacity are shown. It has been remarked, that the more easily a bird acquires his lesson, the more ready he is to forget it; but when once a bird of comparative dulness has succeeded in acquiring his task, he seldom forgets it, even while moulting. When able to whistle perfectly, in their soft flute-like tones, some favourite air, these birds are highly prized by their possessors, and fetch a high price. Bechstein names a bird-seller (Mr. Thiem of Waltershausen), near Gotha, who sends annually to Berlin and London one or two hundred piping bullfinches for sale. These fetch from one to several pounds each, according to their cleverness in singing, while a wild bullfinch might be obtained for two or three pence.

The attachment shown by bullfinches for those who have the care of them, is an additional charm in these interesting birds, and it so happens that they always express their sense of pleasure by singing the tune they have been taught, as well as by many endearing ways.

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