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same measure of the larger sorts is sufficient for thirtythree yards. The seed is inserted in drills, or by the dibble, in rows at a distance proportionate to the height to which the variety grows, as well as according to the

season.

The pea has been so long in cultivation that its origin is not known; but it is supposed to have been introduced from the warmer parts of Europe, where it may have been received from Egypt and Syria. It is known in India, China, and Japan: the soil and climate of the last-named country being more favourable to its habits than those of the two former. It does not thrive in dry and burning regions, neither is it able to endure severe weather. In our own country this crop has been extensively cultivated from an early period. In 1299, when the English forces were besieging a castle in Lothian, it is recorded that their supply of provisions being exhausted, their only resource was in the peas and beans of the surrounding fields. Yet the more delicate varieties of this vegetable were long considered as dainties. Fuller states that in the time of Elizabeth peas were brought from Holland, and were "fit dainties for ladies, they came so far, and cost so dear." In the reign of Henry the Eighth, some of the rarer English sorts were also purchased at a high rate. Among the privy purse expenses of the king is an entry "paied to a man in rewarde for bringing pescodds to the king's grace, four Yet in a song of the time shillings and eight-pence." of Henry the Sixth, peascods are spoken of as if they

were common:

Then unto London I dyde me hye; Of all the land it bearyth the pryse "Gode pescode," one began to cry. Probably the common pea was cultivated extensively when the more delicate varieties then known were extremely rare, which may account for the different statements on the subject.

A street in the town of Windsor is called "Peascod" in all old documents, from the former name of this vegetable. The Latin name of the pea (pisum), is supposed to be derived from Pisa, (a town of Elis,) where peas anciently grew in great plenty. The English name is a corruption from the Latin, and old English authors wrote it peason, which comes very The omission of near to the sound of the Latin name.

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leaves of the plants. Failures frequently occur in the
earliest crops, owing to the attacks of mice, or some other
These failures are supplied by transplanting,
cause.
which is best performed in March or early in April,
and the plants require watering, and if the weather is
warm, shading from the sun.

During the first week in April, the silver onion is
sown for drawing young, and the Spanish for the main
The onion is one of the most important of the
crop.
This vegetable has been used
flavouring ingredients used in cookery, but does not
afford much nutriment.
by all classes, and by most nations, from a very early
period. While to the lower orders, especially in the
northern parts of the kingdom, it is almost indispen-
sable as an accompaniment to their simple meals, and
is nearly always eaten in its crude state; it is also em-
ployed in the refined entertainments of the great, and
imparts a savoury and delicious taste to many of the
best dishes. Among the peasantry, little inconvenience
seems to arise from the use of it in a raw state, but it is
generally considered that onions raised in our northern
climate, are extremely indigestible, unless subjected to
the processes of cookery; and, therefore, those who fear
the result of indulging a taste for uncooked onions,
generally select the milder produce of Spain and Por-
tugal, which are imported into this country, and com-
monly sold in our shops, and which may be eaten in
their crude state with greater impunity.

The great antiquity of this vegetable is proved by the mention made of it in the Sacred Scriptures, where we find that one of the subjects of regret among the children of Israel, on leaving Egypt, was the loss of this favourite addition to their food. The onion is still in esteem among the Egyptians, and so favourable is the climate to its production, that it is much more of a delicacy than it can be considered elsewhere. Hasselquist says, that whoever has proved the exquisite flavour of the onions of Egypt, must acknowledge that none can be better in any part of the world, for there they are mild and pleasant to the palate, while in other countries they are strong and nauseous; there they are soft and yielding, while in northern countries they are hard, and their coats so compact, as to render them less easy of digestion. The Egyptians cut them into four parts, and eat them roasted with pieces of meat; and so fond are they of this dish, that they are said devoutly the last two letters leaves the name of peas. The principal varieties of the common pea are the to wish that it may form one of the viands of Paradise. white or yellow, and the grey. Soil and culture ap- The same traveller remarks, that a soup made of these The onions, was the most delicious of which he ever partook. pear to have produced the chief differences. choicer sorts of peas, known as garden peas, are raised with care for the purpose of being eaten green; field peas are inferior, chiefly on account of the manner of their being raised: these are allowed to come to maturity. The varieties among garden peas are too numerous to be particularized; they consist of early and late sorts, the early being slender of growth and less abundant in the crop, but more capable of resisting the cold, than the late sorts; while the latter bear larger pods, and are more rich and saccharine. One variety, (the sugar-pea,) is sometimes cooked with the pods entire. From the Vegetable Cultivator we learn, that a favourite and fashionable dish was made some fifty years ago of these peas, young pods being merely stripped at the outside edges. Those persons who still use them in this way, place them in a stewpan with some good gravy, thickened with flour and butter, with a little mace, ginger, and nutmeg, and allow them to stew The sugar-pea is gently till the pods are quite tender. the only variety that admits of being cooked in this manner, not having a tough coating inside the pod. The pea vegetates so rapidly, that there have been instances of a crop obtained from seed matured the In dry seasons, peas require to be watered during the time of their flowering and fruiting; but this should be done as much as possible without watering the

same season.

the

The

The onion is raised from seed, which is sown at intervals from February to August. Main crops are sown in March; sometimes as late as the beginning of April, when the sowing for salad onions is also made. seed is sown thinly, broadcast, and regularly raked in. An ounce of seed is sufficient for a rood of ground, especially for the main crops, as they should never be allowed to grow to a size fit for salads without thinning. The beds are divided by narrow alleys into portions about four feet wide, for the convenience of cultivation. The great obstacle to the production of fine onions in this country is the want of a continuance of warm weaA crop of ther. A practice has therefore been recently introduced, which is intended to remove the difficulty. onions is sown in May, and cultivated as in the other crops. In October, the bulbs being of the size of nuts, are taken up, dried, and housed, until about the middle or latter end of the following March, when they are planted at equal distances from each other, and afforu plants, differing from those raised immediately from seed only from possessing much greater strength and vigour, owing to the quantity of previously generated sap being much greater in the bulb than in the seed. The bulbs thus raised are often more than five inches in diameter, and keep better through the succeeding winter than those raised from seed.

The soil for onions can scarcely be too rich and friable. The situation should be open and fully exposed to the sun's rays, the shade of trees, &c. being very prejudicial to the crop. If the soil be exhausted, plenty of fresh manure should be applied in the autumn or winter previous to the sowing, and the ground thrown into ridges, that the manure may become well incorporated with the soil; but if the manuring is deferred till the spring, an old hot-bed, or some similar source, will supply the best material. Onions for pickling, and also those to stand the winter, are sown on poorer soils, as it is an object to repress rather than advance the growth

of the bulb.

Leeks are also sown at the same time with onions. The leek is said to be indigenous to Switzerland, and thence brought to this country; but, like the onion, it has been under cultivation for so many ages, and in such divers countries, that its native place cannot be ascertained. This plant has long been a favourite badge in the Welsh principality, being worn on St. David's day in commemoration of a victory which they obtained over the Saxons in the sixth century, and which they attribute to the leeks they wore, by order of St. David, to distinguish themselves in the battle. Shakspeare, in his play of Henry the Fifth, dates the origin of this custom from the battle of Cressy. Fluellin, addressing the king, observes, "Your grandfather of famous memory, an't please your majesty, and your great uncle, Edward the Plack Prince of Wales, as I have read in the chronicles, fought a most prave pattle here in France If your majesty is remembered of it, the Welshmen did goot service in a garden where leeks did grow, wearing leeks in their Monmouth caps, which your majesty knows is an honourable badge of the service; and I do believe your majesty takes no scorn to wear the leek upon St. Tavy's day."

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Leeks are wholesome and useful vegetables, especially the broad-leaved London leeks, which are chiefly cultivated. The bulb of the leek does not form in the same close manner as that of the onion, but rather consists of the bottoms of the leaves. In some places the root and the greater part of the leaves are eaten by the peasantry; but the chief use of the leek is as a pot-herb, which stands the winter well, and is procurable in a succulent state, when fresh vegetables in general are very scarce. Leeks require a good soil, that has been previously well manured and worked up. The seed is sown rather thinly, that the plants may not come up in clusters. When the seed is deposited, the ground is beaten with the head of the rake, and then regularly, but lightly, raked over. An ounce of seed will produce a great number of plants. When they are six or eight inches high, they are planted out, and for this a good piece of ground is chosen, and prepared for their reception. The plants are then taken from the seed-bed, their tops and roots are moderately shortened, and they are put in about nine inches asunder, and in dry weather supplied with water. As soon as the plants are in a growing state, the ground is hoed and levelled round them, and all weeds are removed. On the approach of severe weather the leek is taken up, and laid under cover in dry sand for winter use.

The leek readily accommodates itself to different climates in the colder parts of Scotland it is much used, and is a favourite ingredient in the Scotch dish called cock-a-leekie. A large plantation of broad-leaved leeks is said greatly to resemble in appearance a plantation of young sugar-canes. Leeks are very abundant in the London markets; and extensive grounds in the neighbourhood of the metropolis are devoted to the cultivation of this vegetable.

Sowings of lettuce, small salad, and spinach, are made early in April, for succession. The lettuce contains a milky juice, (whence the generic name lactuca,) with a narcotic principle, which in the wild plant is so powerful, as to bring it almost within the class of vege

table poisons.

But the cultivated lettuce possesses cooling, and but slightly soporific qualities, and is, perhaps, the best vegetable of the salad kind raised in the open ground.

The lettuce is very generally distributed, but the finest sorts are said to have been originally procured from Egypt, Aleppo, and the island of Cos, belonging to the Turks. Cos Lettuce is still the general name for all lettuces of upright growth. In 1530 the lettuce was known in England, but it appears to have been a rarity. In that year, a gardener at York Place received a reward from Henry the Eighth, for bringing "lettuze" and cherries to Hampton Court. It does not appear to have come into cultivation in Elizabeth's reign, for that queen was obliged to send to Holland for salads and other vegetables. About a century later, however, the lettuce is spoken of as a plant with which the public had long been familiar.

The lettuce is very easy of cultivation, so that very few, even of the gardens of cottagers, are without this useful plant. The soil best adapted to its growth, is a moderately rich, and light sandy loam. For early and late crops, a warm sheltered spot is desirable, but for the midsummer ones, a less confined situation is better suited. The seed is always sown broadcast, moderately thin, and raked in with as little trampling of the soil as possible. When the plants are about a month old, they are thinned out to three or four inches apart. In every stage of growth they must be kept free from weeds, well watered, and the earth round them frequently stirred, to disturb slugs and snails, which are much addicted to this vegetable.

The extract of lettuce is now classed among pharmaceutical preparations, under the name of lactucarium. It is sometimes administered where opium could not be safely used, and is said to possess, though in an inferior degree, the virtues of that drug. The lettuce is therefore cultivated in several parts of the kingdom expressly for medicinal purposes. The plants are raised in very rich soil, and send up thick and juicy flower stems. Before the flowers begin to expand, a portion of the top is cut off transversely: the milky juice soon exudes from the wound, and concretes in the form of a brownish scale; this is removed, and another slice cut from the plant, which causes more juice to flow, and another scale to be formed. This process is repeated as long as the weather remains favourable and the juice continues to flow.

The varieties of the lettuce are very numerous, but are all classed under two distinctive heads, the cos and the cabbage-lettuces. The latter are used in salads in the early part of the season, before the former and finer sorts have arrived at maturity. When in perfection, lettuces have a fine white "heart," formed by the overlapping of the leaves in a close, compact order. Tó secure the formation of a good "heart," the outer leaves of the lettuce are generally tied round the inner ones with a piece of bast, at the proper period in the growth of the lettuce.

Lettuces of former sowings are transplanted at this time, in order to thin the seed bed; asparagus beds are forked up and dressed; the different sorts of brocoli are sown once or twice, and at the end of the month kidney-beans and scarlet-runners are sown for the first crops. Potatoes are also planted for the Summer and Autumn supply.

COMMON things are easily attained, and no one values what lies in everybody's way: what is excellent is placed out of ordinary reach, and you must be persuaded to put forth your hand to the utmost stretch, and reach whatever you aspire to.-FELton.

JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND, LONDON.

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INTRODUCTION.

THE GUILDHALL, LONDON.

THOUSANDS of persons who have witnessed with interest the processions and pageants connected with the different guilds of London, and who have pressed eagerly to behold the preparations for civic entertainments at the Guildhall, are, perhaps, unacquainted with the origin and constitution of these societies, and possess but imperfect ideas of the real nature of a Guild, or Livery Company.

To such it may be interesting to read the popular notices which are here collected for their benefit, and which are chiefly gathered from Herbert's valuable work, The History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies of London. This work is carefully compiled from the grants and records of those companies, to which, in his capacity as Librarian to the Corporation of London, the Author was enabled to gain

access.

It appears then that, in ancient times, there were two sorts of associations, called Gilds; the one sort established for devotion and almsdeeds, and therefore termed Ecclesiastical Gilds; the other sort designed for the promotion of trade and almsdeeds, and termed Secular Gilds. Both kinds were marked by various religious observances, and partook of the nature of monastic institutions.

The name gild, guild, or geld, is derived from a Saxon word signifying to pay, and was variously employed in former times; but it seems to have been applied to the VOL. XXIV.

associations of which we are now speaking, because they were, in fact, bodies of men who had agreed to meet together for purposes connected with their mutual interest, and each to pay a certain contribution towards the common stock. The same word is found in various languages, and it has the same meaning in all, that is, a society, fraternity, or company, combined together by orders and laws made among themselves, and supporting their common charges by mutual contribution.

Societies answering to our gilds existed among the nations of antiquity, and particular portions of cities were assigned to particular societies. This latter custom prevailed in London until the reign of Richard the Second, and is thus alluded to by Fitzstephen. "This city, even as Rome, is divided into wards, and all sellers of wares, all the workmen for hire, are distinguished every morning in their places as well as streets."

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bound to each other to produce him who committed an offence, or to make satisfaction to the injured party. That they might the better do this, they raised a sum of money amongst themselves, which they put into a common stock; and when one of these pledges had committed an offence, and was fled, then the other nine made satisfaction out of this stock, by payment of money according to the offence. In the meantime, that they might the better identify each other, as well as ascertain whether any man was absent upon unlawful business, they assembled at stated periods at a common table, where they ate and drank together. This sort of assembly was, in the seventh century, called the Gebeorscipe, or meeting of freemen, at which time Ina made a law to prevent turbulent proceedings at such kind of meetings." This association was also called Decennary, or Tithing, as being composed of ten families; and also Fribough, or Frith gild, as being composed of those who made free pledges.

Subsequently to these early gilds, arose the religious and secular associations already spoken of, and these appear to have copied the convivialities as well as many of the other customs of the former. They consisted of a head, council, and associates, and the favourite number of the council, with its principal, was thirteen, in imitation of Christ and his apostles. One society is mentioned, which consisted of twelve men, and one woman, who represented the Virgin Mary. Sometimes the members lived together in one building in a collegiate fashion.

Accounts of three only of these Anglo-Saxon gilds have reached our times: the Knights' gild; the Steel-yard Merchants' gild; and the Sadlers' gild. Stowe assigns the origin of Partsoken Ward to the first of these gilds. "This Portsoken, which soundeth as much as the franchise at the gate, was sometime a guilde, and had this beginning, as I have reade. In the daies of King Edgar, more than six hundred yeeres since, there were thirteene knights, or soldiers, well beloved of the king and of the realme, (for service by them done,) which requested to have a certaine portion of land on the east part of the citie, left desolate and forsaken by the inhabitants by reason of too much servitude. They besought the king to have this land, with the libertie of a guilde for ever: the king granted to their request with conditions following; that is to say, that each of them should victoriously accomplish three combattes, one above ground, one under ground, and the thirde in the water; and after this, at a certaine day, in East Smithfield, they should run with speares against all comers, all which was gloriously performed: and the same day the king called it Knighten guilde, and so bounded it from Ealdgate to the place where now are towardes the east," &c.

To this Knighten guild was granted, by Edward the Confessor, the first written charter ever conceded to a fraternity of this sort; but as some of our readers may be curious to know what sort of combats they were which Stowe speaks of as being performed gloriously aboveground, under-ground, and in the water, we give Mr. Herbert's opinion on this subject. The combat aboveground he understands to mean the just, or foot-combat. In this combat the sword or battle-axe was used, and the combatants were generally separated by a barrier of wood, breast-high. Sometimes particular courses were prescribed; as, three courses with the lance, three strokes with the battle-axe, and three thrusts with the dagger. Of the combat under-ground, he does not offer any opinion, but the combats in the water, he says, were boat-justs, or tiltings. The conqueror was he who could parry the bâton of his antagonists with his shield, and, whilst himself remained firm, could overthrow the latter into the water. This favourite sport of the London youth of former times is thus noticed by Stowe: "I have seen, in the summer season, upon the river Thames, some row in wherries, with staves in their hands flat at the fore-end, running one against another, and, for the most part, one or both of them were overthrown and well ducked." Running with spears against all comers, which was the other feat required of the petitioners, means nothing more than the common tournaments. Tournaments consisted of parties of knights engaged at the same time, while justs were trials of strength between two persons only.

The Steel-yard gild (Gilda Theutonicorum) is celebrated as having given rise to the famous Hanseatic League*. The name of Steel-yard, or Stealhof, was probably a contraction of a German word signifying Staple, and does not signify that the gild originally consisted of merchants

See Saturday Magazine, Vol. XVIII., p. 249, where the reader will find a Supplement devoted to a brief account of the Hanseatic League.

carrying on one particular department of trade, for at their quay were landed wheat, rye, and other grain; cables, masts, flax, hemp, linen-cloth, wainscot, and other merchandize. Yet at a later period the Steel-yard is noticed as the grand depôt of imported iron. The ancient house of this company was called the German Gild-Hall, and the merchants themselves were a branch of the confederacy first formed on the east shores of the Baltic, in the eight century, to protect their trade from the piratical incursions of the Normans. The Sadlers' gild is also of high antiquity. The company was admitted at a very early period into brotherhood with the canons of St. Martin's le Grand, and had partnership in masses, and other Roman Catholic ceremonies. In the addresses of the canons to the Sadlers, they refer to the ancient statutes recorded in the chapter of the gild, and this carries back to a remote period the notices of the existence of the company.

The gilds of the Anglo-Norman period were probably numerous, but there are few notices remaining of them. The Woollen Cloth Weavers (Tellarij) formed an association called Gilda Tellariorum, and it appears that they held meetings, elected annual officers, kept courts, made by-laws, and governed their several trades with almost absolute sway.

SECTION 2.

PROGRESS AND RE-CONSTITUTION OF GILDS. In the reign of Henry the Second, the History of the Exchequer gives a list of eighteen of the London gilds which were amerced as being set up without the king's licence. It is not to be supposed that such unlawful gilds formed more than a small part of the existing associations of this kind; therefore we may conclude that the trading companies were very numerous in this reign. King John formed various merchant gilds, and restricted, in some measure, the privileges of the Weavers' company, whose unlimited power appears to have excited the jealousy of the citizens.

The reign of Henry the Third was marked by an occurrence which proves the power of the gilds, and also shows how strong was the spirit of rivalry which had sprung up amongst them. In 1226, a great quarrel arose between the Goldsmiths' company, and the Tailors' company, and so virulent did it become, that the parties determined to decide their differences by a battle. Accordingly, each party, with their friends, met, on an appointed night, to the number of five hundred men, completely armed. Many were killed and wounded on each side, nor could they be parted until the city authorities arrived, and took some of them into custody.

Little progress was made in mercantile affairs during the martial reign of Edward the First; but the Weavers obtained from this monarch a confirmation of their early grants, and charters were likewise bestowed upon the Fishmongers and Linen-Armourers. The government of the gilds at this time is illustrated by Stowe, who tells us that, in the 30th of Edward the First, the Bakers were allowed to hold four hallmotes a year, to determine of offences committed in their business, and were restricted to selling bread in the market, which then was kept on the site of Bread Street, and gave name to Bread-Street ward.

In the reign of Edward the Third,-so favourable to the fine arts and to commerce,-an entire re-constitution of the trading companies took place. They were at this time first" generally chartered, having those privileges confirmed by letters patent, which they had previously exercised through sufferance, and the payment of certain fees. The fraternities were now also no longer called gilds, but crafts, or mysteries; and they now generally assumed a distinctive dress or livery, in consequence of which they came thenceforth to be called Livery Companies. Edward the Third gave the most gratifying tokens of his favour towards them. "Having found," says Mr. Herbert, "that these fraternities were the mainspring of the trade of his kingdom, and having thus given them stability, he determined also to raise them in public estimation. As this could not be better done than by setting an example which would be followed by his courtiers, he became himself a brother of one of these societies. The Linen-Armourers, now Merchant-Tailors, were then great importers of woollen cloth, which the king sought to make the staple manufacture of England, and were the first company who had the honour to boast a sovereign among their members in the person of this monarch. Richard the Second afterwards became a brother of the same company; and the great, both clergy and laity, as well as principal citizens, dazzled with the splendour of such associates,

hastened in both reigns to be enrolled as tradesmen in the fraternities. The Skinners, the Mercers, and the MerchantTailors exhibit most princes and nobility in their lists near this time; other companies had a greater proportion of city dignitaries; the Grocers, towards the close of Edward the Third's reign, enumerated no less than sixteen aldermen amongst their members."

In the 36th year of this reign a petition was presented to the House of Commons against the monopolies practised by the Grocers' company; and in the words of that petition we find the etymology of the word grocer simply and naturally explained. It affirms, "That great mischiefs had newly arisen, as well to the king, as to the great men and commons, from the merchants called Grocers (grossers), who engrossed all manner of merchandize vendible, and who suddenly raised the price of such merchandize within the realm; putting to sale by covin, and by ordinances made amongst themselves in their own society, which they call the Fraternity and Gild of Merchants, such merchandizes as were most dear, and keeping in store the others until times of dearth and scarcity." The petition then suggests that merchants shall deal in or use but one kind or sort of merchandize.

This somewhat arbitrary suggestion was adopted, in an act, from which the following is an extract:-"That all artificers, and people of mysteries, shall each choose his own mystery before the next Candlemas; and that having so chosen it, he shall henceforth use no other: and that justices shall be assigned to inquire by Oyer and Terminer, and to punish trespasses by six months' imprisonment, or other penalty, according to the offence." Women-artificers were exempted from the operation of the act; and the act itself was repealed the following year, so far as it related to merchants.

Amongst the city records of that period are found the names of all, or nearly all, the companies then in existence. Some of the companies had split into several divisions, according to the quarter of the city which they inhabited. It may be interesting to give the names of these companies, with the sums respectively presented by them to their "Lord the King of England in his 37th year." "The Braziers, 31. 138. 4d.; Sporiers, 40s.; the Tanners without Newgate, 40s.; the Butchers of St. Nicholas (now Newgate Market), 97.; the Butchers of the Stocks (those who had retired from the ancient shambles at Eastcheap to the new market on the site of the present Mansion-House), 177; the Grossers, 261. 6s. 8d.; the Poulterers, 31. 13s. 4d.; the Curriers, 17. 16s. 10d.; the Butchers of West Cheap, or Cheapside, 8.; the Bowyers, 60s.; the Ironmongers, 6l. 18s. 4d.; the Chandlers, 87.; the Pewterers, 5l.; the Tailors, 207.; the Wax-Chandlers, 40s.; the Tanners without Cripplegate, 31s.; the Pouch-makers, 17. 168. 10d.; the two Cappers, 13s. 4d.; the Vintnors, 33l. 6s. 8d.; the Skinners, 401.; the Leather-dressers, 31. 13s. 4d.; the Brewers, 147. 6s. 8d.; the Salters, 57.: the Cutters, 41.; the Fishmongers, 407.; the Mercers, 417.; the Girdlers, 61. 13s. 4d.; the Grossers in the Ropury, 51.; the Glovers, 17.; the Armourers, 31.; the Goldsmiths, 20.; the Drapers, 401."

In the 50th of Edward the Third, the number of companies sending members to be the common council was increased from thirty-two to forty-eight, and the members returned were exactly one hundred and forty-three, or about an average of three to each. The oath administered to wardens or other principals before admission to office was as follows:-"Ye shall swere that ye shall wele and treuly ov'see the craft whereof ye be chosen wardeyns for the yeere. And all the good reules and ordyn'nces of the same craft that been approved here be the court, and noon other, ye shall kepe, and doo to be kept. And all the defautes that ye find in the same craft ydon to the Chambleyn of ye Citee for the tyme being, ye shall wele and treuly p'sente. Sparying noo man for favour, ne grevyng noo p'sone for hate. Extorcion ne wrong, under colour of your office ye shall non doo, nethir to noo thing that shall be ayenst the state, peas, and profite of oure sovereyn Lord the King, or to the citee, ye shall not consente, but for the time that ye shall be in office, in all things that shal be longyng unto the same craft after the lawes and ffranchises of the seide citie welle and lawfully ye shall have you. So helpe you God and all seyntes, &c.'

In 1385, the power of the more influential of these companies was manifested in the government of city affairs, in their compelling the return for two succeeding years of Sir Nicholas Brembre as mayor of London, in opposition to the whole of the freemen. This usurpation of the rights of

others was afterwards made the subject of a special petition to the king, and led to a limitation of some of the privileges of the companies. But the power and importance of these societies were now firmly established, and it will not therefore be necessary to follow them step by step in their subsequent career of prosperity. Some of the more important points connected with their history must, however, be briefly adverted to.

By letters patent granted by Henry the Fourth, the Livery companies were made bodies corporate and politic, under a certain definite style or form, with perpetual succession, and a common seal; the power of being able in law to purchase and take lands in fee-simple, given, devised, or assigned; the capability under their usual designations to plead and be impleaded; to make good and reasonable bye-laws and ordinances; to have and hold lands by whatsoever name the same might be bequeathed or conveyed to them; together with the right of search through their several trades, punishment of offenders in them, and various other privileges. This king also confirmed the Mercers, Skinners, Goldsmiths, and Tailors.

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So great was the increase of trade companies, that the business of husbandry appears to have been neglected, and a regulation was introduced, that artificers and "people of mystery or craft, should be compelled to serve in harvest, in cutting, gathering, and bringing home the corn. artificers were also very numerous, and are particularized as "brewers, bakers, braceresses, textoresses, fileresses, and veveresses of silk and other materials." For carrying on their respective trades, they had peculiar districts, similar to Bond Street, or Cranbourn Alley, and they were, like the men, associated in gilds. The "silkwomen of London" formed one of the most important of these gilds.

The reign of Henry the Fifth is distinguished by an important improvement in the regulation of the companies' accounts, which is ascribed to the king himself. All the old court books, and others of the early fraternities, are in Norman French, sometimes intermixed with abbreviated Latin, or the old English of Chaucer's day, but these languages were now discontinued except for legal instruments, and the cause is thus stated in the Records of the Brewers' company: "Whereas our mother tongue, to wit, the English tongue, hath in modern days began to be honourably enlarged and adorned; for that our most excellent lord King Henry the Fifth hath in his letters missive, and divers affairs touching his own person, more willingly chosen to declare the secrets of his will; and for the better understanding of his people, hath, with a diligent mind, procured the common idiom (setting aside others) to be commended for the exercise of writing, and there are many of our craft of brewers who have the knowledge of writing and reading in the said English idiom, but in others, to wit, the Latin and French before these times used, they do not in any wise understand; for which causes, with many others, it being considered how that the greater part of the lords and trusty commons have begun to make their matters to be noted down in our mother tongue, so we also in our craft, following in some manner their steps, have decreed in future to commit to memory the needful things which concern us, as appeareth in the following." succeeding entries are chiefly found in English.

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Henry the Sixth confirmed and chartered many companies, and regarded them with favour; but complaint was made against them in the fifteenth of this reign, by a petition from the commons to the king, to the effect that, "whereas the masters, wardens, and commonalty of several gilds, fraternities, and other companies incorporate in various parts of the kingdom, frequently, under colour of rule and government, and other terms, in general words to them granted and confirmed by charters and letters patent, of the progenitors of our Lord the King, made amongst themselves several disloyal and little reasonable ordinances, as well as corrected offences, whereof the cognizance and punishment solely appertained to the King, the lords of liberties and other persons, and by which the said Lord the King and others were disinherited of their franchises and profits, confederating things for their own single profit, and to the common damage of the people," that he would ordain that the masters, &c., "of each such incorporatedgild, fraternity, or company, should, between then and the ensuing Michaelmas-day, bring and cause to be registered of record, before the justices of peace, or governors of cities, burghs, and towns, in which such gilds are situated, all their letters patent and charters; and that they should not make or use any ordinance in disparity or diminution

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