sources from which sulphur is obtained. When a metallic sulphide is heated in contact with the air, especially with a current of air blowing over it, the sulphur is oxidized and converted into sulphurous acid, which passes off in the gaseous form, and may be detected by its odour and by its power of reddening litmus. This mode of oxidation affords a ready means of detecting the presence of sulphur in minerals. The substance to be examined is reduced to powder, and heated in a glass tube open at both ends and held in a slanting position over a lamp; a current of air then passes up the tube, and the sulphur is oxidized in the manner just described.-Hydrogen gas passed over metallic sulphides at a red heat, frequently decomposes them, carrying off the sulphur in the form of hydrosulphuric acid, and leaving the metal in the free state. Sulphide of antimony is easily decomposed in this manner.-Many metallic sulphides are decomposed by dilute acids, the metal being dissolved, and the sulphur liberated in combination with the hydrogen of the acid; an example of this decomposition is afforded in the preparation of sulphuretted hydrogen, by the action of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid on protosulphide of iron. The sulphides of potassium, sodium, barium, calcium, &c., dissolved in water, are likewise instantly decomposed by dilute acids. Powerful oxidizing agents, such as nitric acid, sometimes convert metallic sulphides into sulphates, sometimes oxidize or dissolve the metal only, and set the sulphur free. This mode of action will be better understood hereafter.

HUMANITY.

HUMANITY is, in regard to other social affections, what the first lay of colours is in respect to a picture. It is a ground on which are painted the different kinds of love, friendship, and engagement.

As the ancients held those places sacred which were blasted with lightning, we ought to pay a tender regard to those persons who are visited with affliction.

A general civility is due to all mankind; but an extraordinary humanity and a peculiar delicacy of good breeding is owing to the distressed, that we may not add to their affliction by any seeming neglect.

TERRESTRIAL PHENOMENA OF THE MONTHS.

MAY.

Throws out the primrose and the snowdrop first;
"Fair-handed Spring unbosoms every grace,
The daisy, primrose, violet darkly blue,
And polyanthus of unnumber'd dyes;
The yellow wallflower stain'd with iron-brown,
And lavish stock, that scents the garden round;
From the soft wing of vernal breezes shed,
Anemones; auriculas enrich'd
With shining meal o'er all their velvet leaves,
And full ranunculus of glowing red.
Then comes the tulip race, where Beauty plays
Her idle freaks; from family diffused
To family, as flies the father-dust,
The varied colours run; and while they break
On the charm'd eye, the exulting florist marks,
With secret pride, the wonders of his hand.
No gradual bloom is wanting-from the bud,
First born of Spring, to summer's musky tribes;
Low-bent, and blushing inwards; nor jonquils
Nor hyacinths of purest virgin white,
Of potent fragrance; nor narcissus, fair,
As o'er the fabled fountain hanging still;
Nor broad carnations, nor gay spotted pinks;
Nor, shower'd from every bush, the damask rose.
Infinite numbers, delicacies, smells,
With hues on hues expression cannot paint-
The breath of Nature, and her endless bloom."

THOMSON.

"In April come the double white violet, the and lilies of all natures; rosemary flowers, the wallflowers, the stock-gilliflowers, the cowslip, tulip, the double pæony; the pale daffodil, the French honey-suckle, the cherry-tree in blossom, the damascene and plum-trees in blossom, the white-thorn in leaf, and the lilac-tree."-BACON.

THE wisest and best of men have ever entertained a passionate love of flowers. The poet king of the Hebrews was evidently an ardent lover of nature, and familiar with the phenomena passing around him. "Let no flower," he exclaims, "let no flower of the spring pass by us: let us crown ourselves with rosebuds before they are withered!" And his writings teem with illustrations derived from the beauties of nature around him. In modern times we find philosophers and poets with the same love of the exquisite productions of the early year-the flowers of May. With what joy old Spenser seems to write :"Then came fair May-the fairest maid on ground,

Deckt with all dainties of her season's pride. And throwing flowres out of her lap around." And Herrick, too :

"Oh, May, with all thy flowers and thy greeneRight welcome be thou, fair fresh May!"

To quote from Shakspere would be truly "Love's labour lost;" for every page is redolent with "the breath of flowers," which, as Bacon observes, "comes and goes like the warbling of music." How the mighty Milton, "from his eminence aloft," sweetly discourses of the denizens of the meadow and the wood, and rejoices

over

"The flowery May, who from her green lap throws The yellow cowslip and the pale primrose." And lesser poets, down to Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Longfellow, revel in their love of flowers.

Our Lord and Master sought in the flowers and fields the poetical illustrations of the arguments which he wished to enforce, and in so doing, appealed to a strong perception and love of the beautiful, which is common in every land where Nature is prodigal of floral beauty. "Consider the lilies of the field," said he, "how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin: and yet I say unto you, that Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these."

Since May is the festival of flowers, the gay-day of the vegetable kingdom; and since all, from the youngest to the oldest, never think of the time apart from its blossoms and sunshine, leaves and fragrance, we shall, in this chapter, "consider the lilies of the field, how they grow." A greater familiarity with the denizens of the meadow and the wood, will not diminish the love we have hitherto felt for them, but will add to our list, dear acquaintances whose faces will greet us as in our solitary walks, peeping from the hedge-side, or by the forest path, to remind us of the everwatchful care which strewed the waste ground with flowers, and covered the desert island and even the rock, with life and beauty.

It is manifest, as plants are not exactly alike, that it is convenient to name them differently; but it is also plain, that as in some points certain plants resemble each other very closely, it is desirable to group such plants together, and give them names which imply their relationship. This nominal division of the vegetable kingdoin into families and orders is necessary, if we seek to gain any general idea of its parts, because it would be quite impossible for any one person to have a detailed know

ledge of each individual plant, separately considered, without its relations to others. A similar kind of division is found convenient in almost everything. The country is divided into counties, hundreds, &c.; the legislative body into lords and commons; the school into classes and divisions. The surface of the world is artificially divided into sections, by lines of latitude and longitude; the stars are considered in groups. Knowledge is divided into arts and sciences, and science again is subdivided into geology, geography, &c. Division and arrangement is necessary to the consideration of every part of the vast field of nature, and as the vegetable kingdom consists of upwards of 100,000 species, it is especially convenient to those seeking to become better acquainted with inanimate life.

In calling attention, then, to flowers and their growth as the most remarkable phenomena of the months of May and June, we propose to consider the best method of becoming acquainted with their nature and properties, or in other words, what system of classification it is best to adopt in the study of botany. But to do this we must possess some information with regard to plants, such as the names of their parts, and the functions which those parts are intended to perform. We shall not now pause to consider the difficulty which exists in drawing a line between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, but proceed at once to speak of what are well known as plants. Of these objects, the most familiar part is the leaf; and it is remarkable that all other parts, except the roots and their appendages, can be shown to be no other than transformations of this organ; as a proof of which, it may be observed, that petals, stamens, &c., are liable to reassume, under peculiar circumstances, a leafy character. The transformations of stamens into petals is a common change, and is that which converts single into double flowers; hence, as the stamens perform an important part in fructification, thoroughly double flowers produce no seeds. This theory-that all appendages of the ascending axis or stem, are leaves metamorphosed to serve particular purposes, was originally

suggested by Linnæus, but afterwards more fully expounded by the illustrious German poet, Goethe. The first growth from the seed is leaf-like, and following it come true leaves, and from a succession of these the stem is developed; from the sides of the stem, buds-which are bundles of folded leaves-arise, and from a series of buds the branches proceed. When a certain degree of maturity has been attained by the plant, the leaves upon portions of the stem, near the point at which flowers are about to appear, assume an altered character, and become smaller and more petal-like; such leaves are called bracts. They are seen on the stem of the rhubarb, are very remarkable objects in the lime-tree, and may be easily found on many common plants. Bracts may, in general terms, be defined to be the leafy appendages between the true leaves and the flower; there are some plants, however, in which they are not found, and many in which it is difficult to distinguish them from parts of the flower itself:-as for example in the common daisy, where the narrow green leaflets which are so neatly folded over each other, at the back or base of the flowers, are bracts -not parts of the true blossom.

It will be convenient if, before we proceed further, we go into the fields and gather a plant-the more common, the better adapted will it be for our purpose, because there will be the greater probability that all our pupils will be enabled to procure specimens; and they will learn, moreover, at the same time, that the most useful and amusing knowledge may frequently be derived from objects with whose outward appearance we have been for life thoroughly familiar.

Who does not know the bright-flowered buttercup? Which of us has not, in joyous infancy, gazed upon its polished golden petals with a feeling of pure delight that in later years we seldom or never know? The buttercup-dear jewel-flower of childhood-associated with its sweet companion, the modest daisy! what can be more fitting subjects for maturer thought than these, the earliest objects of baby admiration! Let us, then, consider these

*See Grandfather Whitehead's Lecture, Family Friend, vol. iv. page 219, and following pages. + From the Latin word bractea, a thin leaf of

metal.

many divisions, while in the daisy the leaf is in one piece; in both leaves, however, we find the veins, or fibres, of the leaf, distributed upon a somewhat similar plan, viz., a central, or principal fibre, from which smaller fibres arise, and form a network of veins on either side. On cutting the stalks, moreover, and examining them with a magnifying glass, we discover a further similarity of structure; for we see that there are bundles of woody tissue symmetrically arranged around a central pith (d).

Above the bracts we find the blossom, which consists of the following parts:1. Calyx; 2. Corolla; 3. Stamens; 4. Pistil. If we look at the base or back of the buttercup, we shall observe five small green leaves, as it were, supporting the yellow leaves of the blossom, (Fig. 4, b.) Each of these green leaves is called a sepal, and the five sepals together form what is called the calyx, because they are frequently united

at their edges, and thus constitute a cup (calyx) for the flower. Within or above

Fig. 4.

the alyx we have five yellow petals, which together form the corolla, a word that signifies in Latin a little crown or garland, and has been applied to this part because the petals (the parts of the corolla) are usually of brilliant colour, and give beauty to the flower. If we remove these yellow petals, we shall find at the base of each (Fig. 3, p) a small scale or gland, which was at one time called the nectary, from the idea that it was the organ which secreted honey. It may here be appropriately pointed out, that in nearly all plants with branched stems and reticulated (net- veined) leaves, there is a curious relation in the number of their parts. In the buttercup before us, we found a calyx consisting of five sepals, then a corolla of five petals; and in the section of the stem I count five bundles of woody tissue; in the other parts of the flower, we shall find also the number five, or a multiple of it. In all such growths the numbers four and five, or their multiples, predominate.

Within the corolla are smaller organs, which, though more difficult to distinguish, are more important agents in the production of fruit or seed. These will require the use of a lens to be minutely examined, but can be distinguished in their general outlines by the naked eye. Indeed, at first sight, the distinction between the stamens, which are outermost, and of a deeper yellow-and the pistils, which are the innermost, and have a greenish appear ance-will be obvious. In the common wallflower, the cherry-blossom, and poppy, the difference of appearance between the stamens and the pistils is more remarkable. Let the stamens be removed, and the mode of their attachment to the stem noted; the pistils, with the ovaries, or unripe fruit,

will then be seen. of growth the petals and stamens fall from the flower, and the unripe fruit goes on increasing without them. (Fig. 3, o.)

In the natural process

In the daisy the parts of the flower are not so distinct as in the buttercup; but the blossom is a type of a large number of plants, amongst which are the dandelion, sunflower, china- aster, and other flowers having a central disk with white or coloured rays around. These are called composite flowers, because, in fact, a great many. flowers compose each blossom. It was explained that the green leaflets at the back of the flower in the daisy were not sepals, but bracts; and the pupil is there. fore prepared to find calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, within and above them." Gently pull away one of the white leaves of the flower, in such a manner as to bring away with it all the parts attached to its base. Upon careful examination it will be found that a complete floret is thus removed; and by continuing the operation, it will be manifest that the whole of the head of the blossom consists of a series of flowers crowded together upon the expanded top of the flower-stalk, which is named the receptacle.

Having thus described some of the more important parts of the buttercup and daisy, we shall postpone the consideration of the remainder of our subject till the next month, when we shall endeavour to put our pupils in possession of such information as will enable them to decide which is the best system of classification to adopt in the study of botany.

SIMPLICITY OF STYLE.

LIKE simplicity of manner, it shows us a man's sentiments and turn of mind, laid open without disguise. More studied and artificial manners of writing, however beautiful, have always this advantage, that they exhibit an author in form, like a man at court, where the splendour of dress, and ceremonial of behaviour, conceal those peculiarities which distinguish one man from another. But reading an author of simplicity, is like conversing with a person of distinction at home, and with ease, where we find natural manners and a marked character.

TESTS FOR KNOWLEDGE.

MATHEMATICAL QUESTIONS,

SOLUTIONS, &c.

EDITED BY W. J. REYNOLDS, ESQ. B.A.

Solution to Question on Page 212. 28. If we subtract 4 miles 320 yards from 12 miles 800 yards, the remainder is 8 miles 480 yards, which is therefore the length of road which is to be formed in the interval between the expiration of 3 months from the commencement of the contract and that of the time assignedan interval, namely, of 1 months. The question may therefore be proposed in the following form: If 92 workmen can complete 4 miles 320 yards of roadway in 3 months, how many can complete 8 miles 480 yards in 12 months? This may be solved by the rule for Compound Proportion, as follows:

EXERCISES.

1. ESSAY-Subject: The comparative value of the Botanical Systems of Linnæus and ter contained in three pages of The Family Jussieu. (Not to exceed in extent the matTutor.)

2. POEM-Subject: The Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations. (Not to exceed 170 lines.)

QUESTIONS.

1. The characters of the natural class of plants Malvacea.

2. What is meant by affinity?

3. What is meant by polarization of light! 4. What arguments are there to prove the indivisibility of matter beyond a certain point, and what may be supposed to be the form of the ultimate atom?

5. What is an eclipse? and at what times I only can eclipses of the moon occur.

6. In what constellation is the Polar star; and what is known concerning it?

7. What is supposed to be the state of the central matter of the earth, and why? 8. What is rain? and how is it supposed to be formed?

9. What are the striking peculiarities of the races of mankind; and in what respects does the skeleton of the human subject differ from that of the ape?

10. What is albumen?

11. Who was Pisistratus, and what remarkable events are recorded of him? 12. Who was Marco Polo ?

13. What is meant by prosopopaia! Give illustrations from standard authors.

14. What is meant by synthesis and analysis. Give specimens of each mode of treating a subject?

15. What is a guttural sound? describe the mode of action of the organs of the voice in producing it?

16. Give a brief account of what is known concerning the early history of written language.