On Intelligence

I. Proper and common names-Importance of common or general
names-They are the first terms of couples-The second terms of
such couples are general and abstract characters.

II. Consequences of this-Experience of such second terms is impossible

-Reasons of this impossibility-Different examples-Difference

between the vague image aroused by the name, and the precise

character denoted by the name-Difference between the sensible

image and pure idea.

III. Actual formation of a general Idea-That which is evolved in us,

when we have seen a series of similar objects, is a final tendency

resulting in a metaphor, a sound, or an expressive gesture-Con-

temporary instances-Early instances-A general name is the

residuum of an expressive sound-When we conceive a general

quality, there is nothing more in our minds than a tendency to name,

and a name-This name is the substitute of an impossible

experience.

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IV. A general Idea is nothing but a name provided with two characters-

The first is the property of being called up on the perception of each

individual of a class-The second, the property of calling up in us

images of individuals of this class, and of this class only-By these

two properties, the general name corresponds exclusively to the

general quality, and becomes its mental representative -Utility of

this substitution

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V. Formation of general names in the case of little children-The

faculty of language is founded on the consecutive tendencies which

survive the experiences of similar individual cases, and correspond

to what there is in common to these individuals-Examples of this

tendency in children-Special meanings given by them to the names

we teach them-Originality and variety of their invention-Their

tendencies to name finally coincide with ours-Acquisition of

language-Difference between human and animal intelligence. . 15

VI. Passage from abstract to collective names-The name which denoted

a general quality denotes a group of general qualities-Examples-

The name then becomes the substitute of several other names, and the

mental representative of a group of general qualities-These sub-

stitutes are what we term Ideas.

CHAPTER III.

OF GENERAL IDEAS AND REPEATED SUBSTITUTIONS.

I. Certain General Characters do not produce in us a distinct impression-

They are therefore incapable of exciting in us a general tendency

and a name-Indirect process by which we arrive at conceiving

them-Example in the case of numbers-Their mental represen-

tative is a name of number-Formation of names of numbers-

Series of superimposed substitutions-Our idea of a number is that

of a name substituted for another name combined with unity. . . 23

II. Examples in Geometry-Our Idea of a Circle is not the sensible

figure we imagine, but a group of combined names, mental represen-

tatives of certain abstract characters-Substitution of the formul

for the impossible experience-We conceive the ideal object by

means of its formula-Universal employment of substitution in

mathematics .

III. Examples in the cases of Infinite Series-Time and Space-In the

case of an infinite series or quantity, we do not conceive the

totality of its terms, but certain of its terms, and one of their

abstract characters represented in us by a name-Substitution of

the formula for the impossible experience-We conceive the infinite

series or quantity by means of its formula.

IV. Summary-Our general Ideas are names, substitutes for impossible

experiences-Psychological Illusion which consists in distinguishing

the idea from the name—
e-Singular effects and general cause of this

illusion-It is natural that signs should cease to be observed, and

end by being considered as mere nothings-False theories on the

pure spirit-The mental representative we term a pure idea is

never more than a name pronounced, understood, or imagined-

Names are a class of Images-The Laws of Ideas are reduced to

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OF THE NATURE AND REDUCTION OF IMAGES.

I. An Experience-An Image is a spontaneously reviving sensation,

usually less energetic and precise than the sensation proper-The

force and precision of the image varies in individuals and according

to its kinds-Personal Instances-Instances of children accustomed

to calculate mentally-Precocious mathematicians-Blindfolded

chess-players-Painters who can draw portraits or make copies

from memory-Schools of Art in which this faculty is cultivated-

Other instances of the voluntary revival of visual sensations-

Sensations of the other senses have their corresponding images-

Images corresponding to auditory sensations-Examples.

II. Circumstances increasing the precision and force of the image-In

such a case it becomes more and more like the sensation - Instances

in which the sensation is recent-Instances in which the sensation

is immediately expected-Examples of images corresponding to

sensations of hearing, of sight, of smell, of taste, of touch-Equal

In these cases, the image is taken, at least momentarily, for the

sensation corresponding to it.

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III. How, in spite of this, it differs from the corresponding sensation-
The illusion accompanying it is speedily rectified-The image inva-

riably comprises an illusion of greater or less duration-Dugald
Stewart's Law-Instance of an American preacher-Testimony of
M. Flaubert-Instance of an English painter-Evidence of a
chess-player-Observations of Goethe and of M. Maury-Volun-
tary hallucinations-Various circumstances under which the image
becomes hallucinatory-These extreme cases are evidence as to the
normal state-In the normal state, the illusion is at once destroyed
-It is destroyed by the presence of an antagonist or reductive.

IV. Cases in which the contradicting sensation is too feeble or is annulled

-Hypnagogic Hallucinations-Experiments of M. Maury-Per-

sonal experience-Passage from the simple image to the halluci-

natory image, and from that to the simple image--Other cases in

which the contradictory sensation is annulled-Wounds in battle-

Hallucinations strictly so-called-Hallucinations of sight after the

prolonged use of the microscope-Partial restoration of the anta-

gonist sensation-Pathological instances-In such cases, the hallu-

cination is destroyed-Story of Nicolai --General means of destroying

the hallucination-Case in which a sensation calls up an illusion

properly so-called-Story of Dr. Lazarus-In such cases, the sup-

pression of the exciting sensation destroys the illusion.