Locke's most famous work is the Essay on Human Understanding (1690), in which he undertakes to define the sources and limits of knowledge. The pith of the treatise is as follows: All human knowledge arises from external impressions; there are no such things as innate ideas; man only knows what he has appropriated by the perception of the senses, by experience. The passage, in which even the idea of God is referred to earthly impressions that appeal to the senses, is as follows: : All those sublime thoughts which tower above the clouds, and reach as high as heaven itself, take their rise and footing here; in all that good extent wherein the mind wanders, in those remote speculations it may seem to be elevated with, it stirs not one jot beyond those ideas which sense or reflection has offered for its contemplation. None the less Locke exerted himself to reconcile the Christian doctrine of revelation with his entirely materialistic views. This accounts for the inconsistency of his theory and its obscurity, which has led to so many disputes. It was the case with Locke as with Isaac Newton, and, indeed, many representatives of English science; they are alarmed by the conclusions drawn from their own discoveries. After having removed revelation by scientific tests, they re-introduce it as something demanded by men's minds. Especially valuable in Locke's Essay is that part of it which deals with the relation of language to thought; in this respect, even modern science has added nothing essential. In this, as in his other works, Locke's style is sober, colourless, but remarkably clear, so that it appears "unscientific" to the professional philosophers, especially German metaphysicians. In fact, he did not write for professors of philosophy, but for the educated (but unlearned) classes of his countrymen; his language is accordingly free from the pedantic jargon of philosophy. It must be attributed in the main to writers like Locke that interest in what was called "philosophising" was so widely extended in the eighteenth century; the philosophers of that time all went to Locke to learn clearness of expression,-all, with the exception of Kant. In addition to his chief work, we possess two other considerable compositions by Locke: The Treatise of Government (1689, a year after the "Great Revolution" and the expulsion of the Stuarts) and the Thoughts Concerning Education. It would be well worth while to compare the first treatise with Rousseau's Contrat social, which is based upon it, and the second with his Émile. In the former, Locke champions the modern view of the State as a tacit agreement between rulers and ruled, lays especial stress upon the inalienable supremacy of the people, and, in short, is a thorough-going opponent of Hobbes. In his Thoughts Concerning Education he in like manner assumes the most important of Rousseau's theories; like Rousseau, he rejects book-learning, particularly the classical languages, and attaches most importance to training men up to a knowledge of what is useful. BIBLIOGRAPHY. GENERAL.-Macaulay's History of England; Hopkins, The Puritans; A. Stern, Geschichte der Revolution in England. WITHERS.-Selected works by Sir E. Brydges; Church hymns by Russell Smith; other poets of this period in vol. ii, of the English Poets, by M. Arnold and T. H. Ward. HERRICK.-New edition by Grosart; Works, by Saintsbury; Hesperides, Gollancz; DRUMMOND.-No complete edition; Turnbull's (1857) contains what is best. CLARENDON.-History (1849). HOBBES.-Complete works, with Life, by Molesworth (II vols., 1845); B. Mayer, Thomas Hobbes: Robertson, Thomas Hobbes; Lyon, La Philosophie de Hobbes. HARRINGTON.-Works, by Hollis (1771). LOCKE.-Last complete edition in nine vols. (1835); Philosophical works, by St. John; his Essay, etc., by Fraser (1894); Fox Bourne, Life of Locke; Cousin, La Philosophie de Locke. TH CHAPTER II JOHN BUNYAN AND SAMUEL BUTLER HE Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan, and Hudibras by Samuel Butler, give a vivid mental picture of the Puritan period at first hand. These two writers are classical witnesses of the time when the whole of England was divided into two hostile camps, utterly opposed in feelings and aspirations. Both works, each in its way, are completely justified; the Puritanism and devoutness of Bunyan, entirely centred in God; the audacious love of ridicule, the unsparing satire and energy of Butler, equally compel our respect. Even those who are not piously inclined may spend many pleasant hours with the fascinating and edifying Pilgrim's Progress, while those who feel no pleasure in the bitterness with which Butler's Hudibras takes the field against his adversaries, will be forced to admire his ready, incisive wit. The Puritans gained the victory over the Cavaliers; in spite of the Restoration under Charles II., England adhered to Puritanism, although not in so uncompromising a form as at the time of the Civil Wars, and Bunyan's prose poem quite put Butler's Hudibras in the shade. JOHN BUNYAN (1628-88), the son of a tinker, and himself brought up to the same trade, was at an early age inclined to religious fervour, self-torture, and penitential discipline; in 1660 he was imprisoned for twelve years for preaching after he had been forbidden to do so. The harmless enthusiast did not know how "to swim with the stream and sail before the wind," like one of the heroes of his Pilgrim's Progress. He forgot that the days of absolute Puritanism were past, and that the throne of England was again occupied by a monarch who was certain to resent moral sermons. After his release from prison in 1672, he lived sixteen years, preaching, and working at his biography or the history of his soul, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, which forms a remarkable illustration of the inner life of Puritanism. In prison, without any books except the Bible and a History of Martyrs, John Bunyan wrote his Pilgrim's Progress, more fully entitled, The Pilgrim's Progress from this world to that which is to come, delivered under the similitude of a dream, wherein is set forth the manner of their setting out, their dangerous journey and safe arrival at the desired country. The Pilgrim's Progress is a Christian allegory, to which there is nothing similar; it is the most successful, in fact, the only allegory in the whole of literature that can be read with pleasure at the present day. Certainly, we travel all the way through a mist of enthusiastic ecstasy, but, in spite of his earthly indifference and heavenly rapture, the writer possesses the art of vivid description. In particular, the representation of the numerous allegorical personages is wonderfully good. The most shadowy character is that of the hero Christian, who, suddenly seized with anguish about the fate of his sin-laden soul, sets out for the seat of heavenly grace, which he finally reaches after most varied adventures. On the other hand, the men whom he meets on the journey are anything but allegorical shadows; they are sharplydrawn types of character, such as, at the commencement of the work, Pliable and Obstinate, and later, By-Ends. The book is very captivating even to the ordinary reader; it is the most entertaining devotional work by a Christian writer, a kind of biblical romance, in which the most fervent piety is combined with delicate humour in such a manner that the effect can only be felt, not described. It contains passages at once unpretentious and magnificent, such as the striking description of the Valley of the Shadow of Death. It is not too much to say that Bunyan's prose poetry is a kind of Protestant counterpart of Dante's Divina Commedia. Next to the Bible and Shakespeare, no book has so large a circulation in England as this work of the simple, uneducated tinker. Even Robinson Crusoe hardly equals it in popularity amongst both old and young. Macaulay read it with delight; Thackeray borrowed from it the title of his famous novel, Vanity Fair. A continuous perusal of the Pilgrim's Progress is open to objection; it might easily exercise an injurious effect upon enthusiastically pious minds, and fill them with horror of all the genuine enjoyments of this life. Again, the mawkishly familiar attitude towards God, reminding us of the Herrnhuters in Germany, leaves an unpleasant taste in the mouth. The centre of gravity of moral feeling in the Pilgrim's Progress is shifted from the human heart to an entirely alienated morality. The language is exceedingly insinuating, and lacks vigour; as we read on, the style strikes us as unhealthy.1 The Pilgrim's Progress most resembles Piers Ploughman's Vision (p. 68) in spirit and language; in all probability Bunyan had read this old book, which 1 "A stylistic softening of the bones" in the original. had taken a fresh lease of life during the religious disturbances in England. Bunyan's knowledge of the Bible is astonishing. On every page the Bible provides him with his portraits; even the language is throughout pervaded by a biblical, Hebrew tinge. As the author conscientiously gives the references to the Bible in the margin, the reading of the Pilgrim's Progress is at the same time a pleasant way of getting a knowledge of the Scriptures. As already stated, Bunyan represents the light side of Puritanism, its ardent longing for the kingdom of God and sincere aversion to the earthly and perishable. In his youth he suffered from religious delusions, saw heaven and the jaws of hell opening; in his old age he was an apostle, and his enthusiastic adherents, numbered by tens of thousands, called him "Bishop Bunyan." But it must not be forgotten that the inevitable consequences of morbidly exaggerated piety, the pharisaic contempt for a sinful brother who had, perhaps, not yet obtained grace, is noticeable even in Bunyan. "God, I thank thee, that I am not as that man," may often be read between, sometimes even in the lines. Let us listen to Christian, the Pilgrim, conversing on his way to the kingdom of heaven. Christian has run away from the City of Destruction to save his soul. His neighbour, Faithful, has followed him, and, without a word of compassion for the fate of his native place, tells him: "I heard some of them deridingly speak of you and of your desperate journey; but I did believe, and do still, that the end of our city will be with fire and brimstone from above, and therefore I have made my escape." The same train of thought, "What has my sinful fellowcreature to do with me?" shows itself in many passages. Thus, Faithful says of Mr. Pliable, of the City of Destruction, that he will also go to the devil, for it is written-and then Christian proceeds, with unctuous satisfaction, to quote a not very applicable verse from the Second Epistle of Peter. Faithful rejoins: "These are my fears of him too, but who can hinder that which will be?" "Well," says the new Christian, "let us leave him, and talk of things that more immediately concern ourselves." In conclusion, we will give a somewhat longer specimen of Bunyan's descriptive style : The interpreter took Christian by the hand and led him into a chamber, where there was one rising out of bed; and as he put on his raiment, he shook and trembled. Then said Christian, Why doth this man thus tremble? The interpreter then bid him tell Christian the reason of his so doing. So he began, and said, This night, as I was in my sleep, I dreamed, and behold, the heavens grew exceeding black: also it thundered and lightened in most fearful wise, that it put me into agony. So I looked up in |