To provide and maintain a navy. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces.

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (the District of Columbia) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dry-docks, and other needful buildings.

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

Limitations Upon the Powers of Congress.

While giving to Congress the duties and powers as mentioned above, the Constitution also places certain restrictions upon Congress, the principal ones of which follow:

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it.

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another, nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any king, prince, or foreign state.

Limitations Upon the Powers of States.

While the above restrictions have been placed upon Congress, certain restrictions nave also been placed upon the various States, as follows:

No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation, grant letters of marque and reprisal, coin money, emit bills of credit, make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.

Federal and State Rights.

In general it may be said that the powers and duties of Congress are those specifically delegated to Congress, while the powers and duties of the individual States are any that are not specifically prohibited to the States. From time to time there have arisen, and there will continue to arise, questions as to whether the Federal Congress is encroaching upon the rights of the States. These questions are determined by the Supreme Court of the United States.

How the President and Vice-President Are Chosen.

The executive authority of the United States is vested in the President, who is elected by an indirect vote of the people. That is, the voters in the several States cast their votes for presidential electors. These presidential electors thus chosen by a direct vote of the people at the popular (general) election held the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November of every fourth year (a leap year), meet in the capitols of their respective States, forming what is known as the "Electoral College."

The Electoral College.

The returns from the various States are sent to Washington before the first Wednesday of the following January and are counted on the second Wednesday of February following, in the presence of both houses of Congress in joint session. The candidate thus voted for as President who receives a majority of the votes is thereby elected President, and the one receiving the major

ity of votes as Vice-President is thereby elected as Vice-President, and the result of the election is announced by the presiIdent of the Senate. It is, of course, presumed that the electors will cast their votes for the candidates of the same political party as they themselves are, although it is by no means obligatory.

In the event that none of the candidates receives a majority of the votes, the House of Representatives chooses the President from among the three candidates receiving the highest number of votes, and the Senate chooses the Vice-President in a similar manner, choosing from the two candidates having the highest number of votes. In the choosing of the President by the House of Representatives the entire representation from each State has only one vote.

The number of electors in each State is the same as the number of Representatives plus the number of Senators, or two more than the number of Representatives, since each State has two Senators.

The term of office of the President is four years, but a President may be re-elected as often as the voters choose. No President has yet been elected for more than two terms.

The salary of the President at the present time is $75,000 per year and in addition certain other allowances are made, such as $25,000 for traveling expenses; clerk hire at the White House; repairs, furnishings and other expenses at the White House, and many other small items. The President's necessary personal expenses are large, so that the President's salary, together with the various allowances, are usually exhausted within the term of office.

Order of Succession to the Presidency.

Should a vacancy occur in the presidency due to the death, resignation, removal or incapacity of the President, then the VicePresident becomes President. Should there be a vacancy in the vice-presidency at the same time then the position is filled by one of the Cabinet.

The order of succession is as follows: Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, and so on in the order in which the various departments were created. In the event of the ranking Cabinet officer not possessing the necessary qualifications to become President the duties of the office devolve upon the next ranking Cabinet officer who possesses the qualifications

Powers of the President.

Among the powers of the President is the appointing power. The President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoints ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers whose appointment is not otherwise specifically provided for. Many minor civil officers are appointed by the President without the advice and consent of Congress. In all, several thousand ap

pointments are under the control of the President.

Foreign Representatives.

A Consul is an officer appointed to reside in a foreign city or port, chiefly as a representative of his country's commercial interests.

An Ambassador is a person commissioned as of the highest rank, sent by one sovereign power to another to treat matters of state, or to reside in a foreign capital to act as a diplomatic representative.

Theoretically, an Ambassador has greater power than a Minister. Formerly, an Ambassador was the direct representative of the ruler; a substitute for his own person. At the present time the title of Ambassador is conferred on diplomatic representatives to first-class powers, while representatives to lesser powers are designated Ministers.

The assent of two-thirds of the Senators present is necessary for the approval of any treaty negotiated by the President. Usually the Foreign Relations Committees of the Senate and of the House of Representatives are consulted in the negotiation of treaties.

President Cannot Declare War, but Can Make War.

In the declaration of war the President has an indirect voice. The Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to declare war, but the various acts which frequently lead to the declaration of war are entirely in the hands of the President, so peace and war are frequently of the President's making.

How Laws Are Enforced.

Probably the foremost duty of the President is to execute the laws. This means that the President is to take due care that the laws of the nation are properly carried out, even should he not be in favor of them. He and his department heads issue orders or regulations covering the points embodied in the laws enacted, using the courts and the armed forces of the United States when necessary. Even the State militia may be used when required to suppress insurrection or riots.

The President is Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States and of the Militia of the several States when called into actual service of the United States.

The annual message of the President was intended primarily to convey information in regard to the state of the Union and to recommend such measures as were judged necessary and expedient. To-day the President's message conveys very little information of the state of the Union, because the state of the Union is now known from day to day through the medium of the daily newspapers; therefore, the message usually outlines the legislation desired by the President. Many of the most important acts of

Congress in recent years were the result of recommendations made in the annual message. In connection with his annual message, the President usually requires the opinion, in writing, of the head of the different executive departments concerning the conditions in their respective departments. He may also require this opinion at any time.

President's Power to Pardon.

The power to grant pardons and reprieves is another of the functions of the President. This power extends only to those persons who are guilty of offenses against the United States, but may not be used in cases of impeachment. The President has no pardoning or reprieving power in cases of offenses against any of the States or cities. The Veto Power.

Perhaps one of the most important powers of the President, in that it may greatly influence legislation, is the veto power. It serves as a check to hasty and ill-considered legislation by Congress. After a bill passes both houses of Congress it is sent to the President for his signature. If he refuses to sign (vetoes), it is returned to the House whence it came with a memorandum of the reasons for vetoing it. A bill which has been vetoed may become a law over the President's veto (without his signature) if it be passed by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress, but should the bill be changed in the least from the one which was vetoed by the President it is necessary for it to be again submitted to him for his signature.

Should the President fail to sign or return the bill to Congress within ten days, Sundays excluded, it becomes a law without his signature, unless Congress has adjourned in the mean time, making the return of the bill impossible. At the present time the veto power of the President is rarely used, because he usually makes known his decision to veto the bill unless it meets with his views.

Another duty of the President is to protect the States from invasion. The Constitution provides that the United States shall guarantee each State a republican form of government and shall protect each of them against invasion and on application of the legislature or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. This is merely an exercise of the President's power as Commander-in-Chief of the forces of the United

proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers.

The President, before taking office, must take an oath that he faithfully execute the duties of the office, and to the best of his ability protect, preserve and defend the Constitution of the United States.

Qualifications to Become President.

The qualifications of the President are that he must be not less than 35 years of age; that he be a native-born citizen; and that he be resident within the United States for 14 years preceding the election.

The Vice-President.

The Vice-President is the second executive of the United States, and is elected at the same time as the President and for the same term of office. At the time of its adoption, the Constitution provided that the electoral votes should be cast for President, and the candidate receiving the highest number of votes was declared elected President, and the one receiving the next highest number was declared elected VicePresident. Later, with the development of the political "parties" each having different ideals or "platforms," the method of electing the President and Vice-President was changed and is now as detailed under the heading of President.

Only One Active Duty.

The only active duty of the Vice-President is that of being President of the Senate. He has no vote in the Senate, except in cases of a tie vote, when he casts the deciding vote. His powers are practically nil in the Senate when compared to those of the Speaker in the House. He cannot control the debates in the Senate the way the Speaker can in the House. His power of appointment is very meagre. He is in no sense a dictator.

In the event of the death of the President, the Vice-President assumes the duties of the office and continues as President until the end of the term for which the President was elected; or, in case of the disability of the President, until the disability has been removed.

The salary of the Vice-President is $12,000 per year, the same as Cabinet officers. Like the President, the VicePresident may be removed by impeachment.

The Cabinet.

The President's Cabinet consists of the heads (usually having the title of Secretary) of the ten executive departments. It meets weekly (oftener, when necessary) in the President's office and discusses matters of the various departments. The Cabinet officers act as advisers to the President and in this way take a more or less active part in the administration of the government.

The Cabinet officers are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, but may be removed by the

The Treasury Department has charge of the financial interests of the United States, including the national banks; the collection of revenues, such as customs "duties" on imports and internal revenues (taxes on tobacco, liquors, income taxes, corporation taxes, etc.). It has charge of the construction of public buildings, of the life-saving and revenue cutter service, and the mints. It has charge of the coinage and printing of money.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (but not the Government Printing Office), in which all the paper money of the United States is printed, as also the bank notes of the various national banks and the bonds and postage stamps, is a part of the Treasury Department.

The Secret Service Division, the only service which is devoted to detection of crime against the United States, is another of the branches of the Treasury Department.

War Department.

The War Department has charge of the maintenance, direction and efficiency of the military forces of the Union. It has charge of the Military Academy at West Point; of the ordnances and fortifications, wherever located; harbor and river improvements,

etc.

Department of Justice.

The Department of Justice acts as the legal adviser of the President and heads of all departments, and also is the Prosecutor in cases where the Federal laws are infringed, as in the violations of the Sherman Anti-Trust Law, the Mann Act, etc. The

United States District Attorneys and Mar

shals are under the Department of Justice.

Post Office Department.

The Post Office Department has power over the transmission of mail matter, including the designation of postal routes of certain roads, railways and shipping lines; power to make contracts with the various railroads, steamship lines and other conveyancing companies for the transportation of the mails.

The Postal Savings Banks, while under the direct control of a Board of Trustees, consisting of the Postmaster-General, the Secretary of the Treasury and the Attorney

General, is practically a part of the Post Office Department.

The prosecution for frauds is frequently undertaken through the agency of the Post Office Department under the general heading of "using the mails to defraud." The Railway Mail service is a division of the Postal system.

Navy Department.

The Navy Department has charge of the naval forces of the nation, including the yards and docks, ordnance, construction, repairs, etc.

Department of Interior.

The Department of the Interior has charge of the public lands, pensions, Indian affairs, patents and copyrights, the taking of the census (every ten years), the national parks and reservations, and the direction of education. Each of these functions is under a separate bureau, as the Land Office, Bureau of Education, Patent Office, etc.

Department of Agriculture.

The Department of Agriculture has charge of all matters pertaining to the agricultural industry, including the care and propagation of crops, fruit raising, live stock, methods of handling, introduction of new crops, etc., forestry and public roads. The Weather Bureau is one of the bureaus of this depart

ment.

Department of Commerce.

The Department of Commerce has charge of promoting the mining, manufacturing and fishing interests; the administration of the lighthouse service; the taking of the census and the collection of statistical information; the making of coast geodetic surveys; the collecting of statistics relating to foreign and domestic commerce; the inspection of steamboats, and the supervision of the fisheries.

The Bureau of Corporations, which formerly was one of the principal bureaus of this department, has since been replaced by the Federal Trade Commission. (See below.)

Department of Labor.

The Department of Labor is the last executive department to be established. Its work was formerly performed almost enDepartment of Commerce and Labor. The tirely by the Bureau of Labor of the former duties of the new department are: The acquiring and diffusing of useful information on subjects in connection with labor, and especially upon its relation to capacity; the hours of labor; the earnings for laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their mental, social, intellectual and moral prosperity; and especially to investigate the causes and facts relating to all controversies and disputes between employers and employees as they may happen to interfere with the welfare of the people in the various States; and to perform such minor duties as the publication of statistical de

tails relating to all departments of labor in Hawaii.

The Heads of Departments.

The salary of each of the Cabinet officers is $12,000 per year.

Each of these departments is under the direct supervision of a Secretary (except the Department of Justice and the Post Office Department), who is a member of the President's Cabinet. The head of the Department of Justice is called the AttorneyGeneral, while the head of the Post Office Department is the Postmaster-General.

Besides these ten executive departments there are a number of minor departments, the heads of which are not members of the President's Cabinet.

The three principal of these are as follows:

Interstate Commerce Commission.

The Interstate Commerce Commission has supervision of railroad rates, both passenger and freight; also of private car lines, sleeping cars, parlor cars, express companies, pipe lines, telegraph, telephone and cable companies, shipments partly by rail and partly by water, storage charges, etc. It enforces the law on air-brakes and other safety appliances on interstate trains and prescribes a uniform system of accounts for the various kinds of carriers under its jurisdiction, and requires reports of earnings from them.

It consists of seven members, each serving a term of seven years.

Federal Trade Commission.

Under the Act of 1914, the personnel, powers and authority of the Bureau of Corporations of the Department of Commerce and Labor were taken over by the newly formed Federal Trade Commission.

The powers and duties of the Bureau of Corporations were the investigations into the organization, conduct and management of the business of any corporation, joint stock company or corporate combination engaged in commerce, except common carriers, which latter are under the supervision of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Its duties were further to gather such information and data as will enable the President of the United States to make recommendations to Congress for legislation for the regulation of such commerce, and to report such data to the President from time to time as he shall require; and the information so obtained, or as much thereof as the President may direct, shall be made public. In addition to these, the Commission is to prevent persons, partnerships or corporations from using unfair methods of competition in commerce, excepting banks and common riers.

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The decisions and rulings of the Trade Commission are subject to review upon appeal to the Circuit Court of Appeals, and thence to the Supreme Court of the United States. Other powers of the Commission are to gather, compile and publish informa

tion of the organization, business management, practices, etc., of any corporation engaged in national trade (excepting banks and common carriers) and its relation to other corporations or individuals.

The Commission is composed of five members appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, for seven years each, at a salary of $10,000 per year.

Civil Service Commission.

The Civil Service Commission has charge of the holding of examinations to determine, without regard to political or other considerations, the qualifications of candidates for Government Civil Service positions. There are at the present time (1916) upwards of 300,000 employees in the civil service of the nation whose positions are filled under the direction of the Civil Service Commission. The Commission must keep a careful watch over all appointments, dismissals and promotions to see that the purpose of the Civil Service Law is not defeated. With the President's approval, the Commission makes rules for the conduct of examinations, keeping of service records, guarding against "political activity" of civil employees, classifying the various positions as to salaries and duties, and provides an examination for each class.

The Commission is composed of three members: The head, or President of the Commission, and two other Commissioners.

United States Courts.

The judicial power of the United States. is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts, according to Article 3 of the Constitution, which says, in part:

"The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall at stated times receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office."

From this brief statement concerning the courts to be established in the United States according to the Constitution our present and elaborate system of courts has resulted.

The highest court in the United States is the Supreme Court, with a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices, any six of whom constitute a quorum. The salary of the Chief Justice is $15,000 per year, while the Associate Justices each receive $500 less per year. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides at the impeachment trial in the Senate when the President of the United States is impeached.

The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction (that is, cases originate in the Supreme Court and are not brought from an inferior court) in cases affecting Ambassadors of foreign powers, Consuls and Public Ministers, and also in cases in which a State is a party. It has appellate jurisdiction in cases