Indications of the Creator; Extracts, bearing upon Theology, from the History and the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. By WM. WHEWELL, D. D., Master of Trinity College, and Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. London: JOHN W. PARKER. 1844.

(Continued from page 203.)

According to promise we resume our notice of this interesting work, with the view of presenting a general analysis of its contents. After the introductory remarks on Galileo and his contemporaries, which formed the conclusion of our last article,

Professor Whewell enters on an examination of

THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, which, as is well known, originated with Laplace. This eminent mathematician has proved the state of the solar system to be stable-that is, the ellipses which the planets describe will always remain nearly circular, and the earth's axis of revolution will never deviate much from its present position. He has shown also that this stability depends upon the fact that the planets all move in the same direction, in orbits of small eccentricity, and slightly inclined to each other. He has moreover given mathematical proof that this fact is not accidental-that "a primary cause has directed the planetary motions." Having arrived at this conviction he does not draw from it the irresistible conclusion, that "this admirable arrangement of the solar system cannot but be the work of an intelligent and most powerful being." He quotes these expressions, which are Newton's, and refers to them as an instance where that great man had deviated from the method of true philosophy. But he attempts to account for the actual state of the solar system, by supposing that in its original condition the sun revolved in an atmosphere which by excessive heat was diffused far beyond the orbits of all the planets, these as yet having no existence; that, by successive cooling, contraction, and consequent acceleration of rotatory motion, and increased centrifugal force, masses of vapour were detached, which formed at different distances planets in the state of

vapour, retaining their original properties of rotatory motion, and a capacity of cooling and giving off satellites and rings in the same manner. The motions of a system so produced would, on mechanical principles, be just those which are actually found to exist; and thus the hypothesis is held to account for the stability of the universe, without the intervention of a supernatural

cause.

It thus becomes a proper subject for examination in a treatise on Natural Theology. Dr. Whewell however waives all discussion of the physical probability of a theory, which was proposed by its author with great diffidence as a conjecture only; observing that he might very reasonably have left it altogether out of his consideration "till it had assumed a less indistinct and precarious form:" as it could be no charge against his doctrines that there was a difficulty in reconciling with them arbitrary guesses and half-formed theories. Granting, however, the hypothesis, it by no means proves that the solar system was framed without the intervention of intelligence and design. It only transfers our view of the skill exercised and the means employed to another part of the work; namely, the conferring on the sun and its atmosphere such a constitution as should necessarily produce just those results which actually exist. For it is impossible for the mind to rest at the point here presented to it.

"This anterior state," Laplace admits, was preceded by other states, in which the nebulous matter was more and more diffuse, till we arrive at a state of nebulosity so extremely attenuated, that its existence could scarcely be suspected." Still the question occurs, Then whence this state, and the laws which regulated its subsequent changes? "Do we not far more than ever require an origin of this origin? an explanation of this explanation? Whatever may be the merits of the opinion as a physical hypothesis, with which we do not here meddle, can it for a moment prevent our looking beyond to a first cause, an intelligent Author, an origin proceeding from free volition, not from material necessity ?"

Pursuing the subject in a style of great force and beauty, Dr. Whewell overwhelms

the hypothesis with a shower of unanswerable questions, of a similar kind, establishing triumphantly the conclusion that "every new physical theory which we include in our view of the universe involves us in new difficulties and perplexities, if we try to erect it into an ultimate and final account of the existence and arrangement of the world in which we live."

This principle is further illustrated and confirmed by the examination in the following section of Geffroy St. Hilaire's THEORY OF ANALOGIES: a theory which aims at the utter subversion of the all but universal belief of a purpose in the structure of animal bodies, and their exquisite adaptation to the circumstances in which the animal is to live. All ideas of fitness in the organization for any end of life or action are to be dismissed as unphilosophical and absurd; and our attention given to its analogies with other organizations, through which it was gradually derived from the original type. A "unity of plan" pervades all the apparent varieties in the structures of animal forms, which differ from each other only in being in various stages of development. This diversity in degree of development is held sufficient to account for any seeming diversity in constitution; and the supposition of special organization is therefore as needless, as it is destitute of a natural foundation.

Granting, for a moment, the hypothesis, we would ask whence this unity of plan, and the original type, with its wonderful capacity of subsequent development in the manner supposed? A purpose being denied to particular organizations, are these too without design? Clearly they must have been in accordance with some law, or this unity could not exist; and to suppose the original type to have been itself the child of chance, while all that have proceeded from it are in accordance with a perfect "unity of plan," is plainly contradictory. Admitting its first principles to be correct, the theory cannot be carried out to the extent contemplated by its professed founder without a manifest absurdity.

But in fact this boasted "unity of plan" cannot by any stretch of language be proved to exist. A molluscous animal, for instance, cannot by any process of reasoning be assimilated to a vertebrate; unless indeed by assuming, with St. Hilaire, the very thing to be proved; namely, that the former is but an imperfect and imperfectible embryo of the latter, and would in a higher stage of development show the same organs similarly disposed. When an author has recourse to such a method of argumentation (?) to overturn a conviction so deeply rooted in our rational and moral nature, as that of a purpose in organization; and intimates that, even if his reason inclined

to a contrary determination, he should "mistrust its feeble powers," we cannot but think his mistrust, more than his confidence, well-placed, and that the sooner he goes counter to the suggestions of such a friend as his "feeble reason," the better.

With the utter inanity and weakness of such a system of nature, Dr. Whewell very properly contrasts the glorious fruits that have resulted from the application of the doctrine of final causes, by Cuvier and others, in physiological and geological researches. The discovery of the circulation of the blood by Harvey-a discovery which has immortalized its author, and exercised a greater influence perhaps than any other on "the modern practice of physic," was, as is well known, due to his studying the structure and use of the valves found in the blood-vessels of the human body. And a more thorough apprehension of the same principle of special organization enabled Cuvier not only to understand and arrange the structures of animal forms with unprecedented clearness and completeness of order, but even to restore the forms of the extinct animals that are found in a fossil state, in a manner that has been universally assented to as irresistibly convincing. In short, there is scarcely a discovery of any moment in physiology, but what has been, in a greater or less degree, arrived at as a consequence of making the conviction of a purpose in organization the basis of study; knowledge respecting the function of any part being generally found to result from investigations undertaken from a persuasion that the part had a discoverable use, an intelligible end.

Thus established in our belief that there is an adaptation, designedly so, in the structure of every being to its destined mode of life, we pass on to notice the cognate question of the TRANSMUTATION OF SPECIES; or whether there is in any kind of animals a capability of passing into any other merely by the influence of breeding and of external circumstances. The affirmative of the question is maintained by Lamarck and St. Hilaire as a necessary corollary from their doctrine of a unity of plan in animal forms; but the balance of physiological authority, not less than universal experience, is on the other side. is not, however, to be denied, that "there is in all species a capacity to adapt themselves, to a certain extent, to a change of external circumstances; this extent varying greatly according to the species. There may thus arise changes of appearance or structure; and some of these changes are transmissible to the offspring. But the mutations thus superinduced are governed by constant laws, and confined within certain limits. Indefinite divergence from the

It

original type is not possible; and the extreme limit of possible variation may usually be reached in a short period of time. In short, species have a real existence in nature; and a transmutation from one to another does not exist. Thus, for example, Cuvier remarks that, notwithstanding all the differences of size, appearance, and habits which we find in the dogs of various races and countries, and though we have, in the Egyptian mummies, skeletons of this animal as it existed three thousand years ago, the relation of the bones to each other remains essentially the same, and, with all the varieties of their shape and size, there are characters which resist all the influences both of external nature, of human intercourse, and of time."

Tremendous, however, as are the assumptions involved in the hypothesis of unity of plan and transmutability of species in the animal kingdom, at least when put forth, as till now they have uniformly been, as sufficient to disprove the doctrine of a final cause in organization; these are yet inadequate to enable their maintainers to deduce from them such a state of things as we see about us, without having recourse to still more objectionable figments, and to demands upon our assent even more inadmissible than "the primary assumption of indefinite capacity of change." "For example, in order to account, on this hypothesis, for the seeming adaptation of the endowments of animals to their wants, it is held that the endowments are the results of the events; that the swiftness of the antelope, the claws and teeth of the lion, the trunk of the elephant, the long neck of the giraffe, have been produced by a certain plastic character in the constitutions of animals, operated upon for a long course of ages, by the attempts which these animals made to attain objects which their previous organization did not place within their reach. In this way it is maintained that the most striking attributes of animals, those which apparently imply most clearly the provident skill of their Creator, have been brought forth by the long-repeated efforts of the creatures to attain the object of their desires. Thus animals of the highest endowment have been gradually developed from ancestral forms of the most limited organization. Thus fish, birds, and beasts, have grown from small gelatinous bodies, possessing some obscure principle of life, and the capacity of development. And thus MAN himself, with all his intellectual and moral, as well as physical privileges, has been derived from some creature of the ape or baboon tribe, urged by a constant tendency to improve, or at least to alter, his condition!"

But to arrive, even hypothetically, at

this result, it is necessary to assume, besides a mere capacity for change, the existence of certain monads, or primary rudiments of plants and animals, which must have a constant tendency to progressive improvement, and the attainment of higher powers and faculties than they possess. These tendencies again must be perpetually modified and controlled by the force of external circumstances. And, in order to account for the simultaneous existence of animals in every stage of this imaginary process, we must suppose that nature is compelled to be constantly producing those elementary beings, from which all animals are successively developed.

Such a scheme is sufficiently arbitrary and complex, even if it did account for facts: but as it does not so much as accord with them, this cannot be; and the hypothesis falls to the ground. "The capacity of change, and of being influenced by external circumstances, such as we really find it in nature, and therefore such as we must in science represent it, is a tendency, not to improve, but to deteriorate. When species are modified by external causes, they usually degenerate, and do not advance. And there is no instance of a species acquiring an entirely new sense, faculty, or organ, in addition to, or in place of, what it had before."

But, supposing it proved that animals possess these capacities of change, and these progressive tendencies, is the argument for design at all weakened or impaired? By no means. We are carried one step further back in the series of necessary consequences; but we have still a first cause to seek. These capacities must themselves have resulted primarily from some superior capacity, and that not passive but active in its essencecapacity of endowment, and not one of development merely. These tendencies must themselves have proceeded from some antecedent tendency- -a tendency to create, not a tendency to improve upon creation. These suppositious monads must themselves have been produced by the real-the subjuntive by the supreme-the contingent by the self-existing the transitory by the immutable-the material and mundane by the spiritual and divine; and the necessity for their constant reproduction through all time

what is it but a necessity for the constant operation of a supernatural cause? Or if it be objected that the idea of a cause acting with such constancy and uniformity is that of a natural agency at work, then we reply, Is the idea of a Divine providence originating, superintending, and directing the movements of the universe, equally so, as natural-certainly not less reasonable, and far more in harmony with the moral constitution of man-more able to meet the eter

nal longings of the soul for that infinite incomprehensible, from which sprung, in which is contained, and will finally be consummated, all contingent existence. So futile, so pitiful are the attempts made to subvert and overturn the empire of the living GOD, and to substitute the idolatry of a fictitious, soul-less NATURE, in the hearts and understandings of men; and so emphatically have some, professing themselves to be wise, become fools!

The subjects of the remaining extracts are GEOLOGY and the question of CREATION, as related to that science, and Theology, respectively: the Philosophy of BIOLOGY, or the science of life and organization, and the idea of FINAL CAUSES: PALETIOLOGY, or the Philosophy of those Sciences of which the object is to ascend from the present state of things to a more ancient condition, from which the present is derived by intelligible causes-as Geology, Glossology, or

Comparative Philology, and Comparative Archæology; the Doctrine of Catastrophes and of Uniformity; the relations of TRADITION to Palætiology; the conception of a FIRST CAUSE; and the SUPREME CAUSE.

The general character of these extracts is the same as that of the preceding; the contents of which we have given above in an abridged form. But we should have preferred seeing them all in an order the very reverse of the Professor's. It would at least have appeared more natural for the general consideration of Biology and Palætiology-the idea of a Final Cause, and the conception of a First, to have preceded the particular applications of these principles to Astronomy, Geology, Physiology, and so forth. Beyond this, we have nothing to add to the opinion we formerly expressed. We wish the work a most extensive circulation: it can meet with no measure of success which it does not deserve.

THE

METROPOLITAN INTELLIGENCE.

THE advance of the season is unfortu

nately accompanied by a partial relapse into late hours, rendering the Committee unable to devote so much of their time to the affairs of the Association as they could during the winter months. Our record of intelligence, therefore, is necessarily less copious this month than it has been before.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE METROPOLITAN DRAPERS' ASSOCIATION.

April 30th.-Resolved, "That a Deputation from the Committee of the Metropolitan Drapers' Association do meet the Committee of the General Trades' Association, for the purpose of deliberating upon means to advance the common object."

The other business has been chiefly of a routine nature, which it is unnecessary to publish. The Committee have also been much occupied of late in considering a

scheme for impressing more forcibly upon the public mind the objects they have in view, and measures of the greatest importance are in contemplation which it would be premature to speak more fully upon at present.

GENERAL TRADES' ASSOCIATION.

A Public Meeting of this Association, called for the purpose of taking some steps to procure the abolition of the present system of late business hours, so prevalent throughout the metropolis, was held on Wednesday evening, the 14th of May, at Blagrove's Concert Rooms, Mortimer-street, Cavendish-square, Dr. Epps in the chair.

The Meeting was very respectably attended; a considerable number of welldressed ladies being present.

The Chairman, in opening the business of the Meeting, said that he was sure that all who were met in that room must feel

that this was a cause which called for their warmest sympathy. It was one which appealed to their kindest and most innate feelings; for it only asked that they should do that justice to others which they would wish extended to themselves. He was no admirer of legislative interference in questions of this kind; and he was very certain that, even if the legislature of this country passed an Act to-morrow limiting the hours of labour, that Act would be set aside by those persons who were most interested in so doing. Their legislature should therefore be the enlightened public mind of the country; and their measure of success would be in that degree only in which they acted on that mind by agitation, and by continually holding up to their mental vision the baneful effects which resulted from this system. He would leave to the gentlemen who would address the Meeting after him, to give a detailed statement of their proceedings, and the success which had already attended them: and first he should call on the Secretary to report the history of the Society; and he trusted that the good they had already done would form a foretaste of the greater good which would result from their after exertions.-(Cheers.)

The Secretary then entered into a lengthened statement of the rise, progress, and prospects of the London General Association of all Trades for the abridgment of the hours of business, and concluded by exposing the fallacy of the saying, that the present hours were necessary, because people could not make their purchases sooner.

Several gentlemen afterwards addressed the Meeting, and the following resolutions were unanimously agreed to:

"That the Meeting views with the deepest regret the present protracted system of late hours in business, as having a tendency to impair the physical and mental energies of those who are engaged in the same, without advancing the interest of the employer, or yielding to any one branch of trade the least conceivable benefit."

adopt measures to promote the closing of shops at seven o'clock throughout the year. The attendance was tolerably good, and many of the shopkeepers of the township were present. The Rev. A. Knox, of St. Mary's, Birkenhead, was in the chair, and, among the gentlemen anxious to promote early-closing, we noticed the Rev. J. Gardner, curate, the Rev. George Goodman, curate of Holy Trinity Church, C. E. H. Orpen, Esq., M.D., William Cole, Esq., Mr. Vale, Mr. Hicklin, editor of the Ches ter Courant, Mr. Jones, treasurer of the Shopkeepers' Assistants' Association of Liverpool, &c. &c. Many ladies honoured the Meeting with their presence.

The Chairman, after a few preliminary observations with reference to the object of the Meeting, said,-The length of time the shops were kept open might be considered as a sort of slavery; and it was the duty of every Christian to come forward and put a stop to such proceedings. He had noticed with regret that many farmers' sons had come as shop-assistants with the bloom of health on their cheeks, which in a few years had departed, and they gradually withered away like flowers. That was the first evil late hours of business entailed on the assistants. The next was the immorality the system produced; for young men, after being penned up all day, finding their body fatigued and weakened, went to public-houses, with the intention of recruiting their strength, and thus, in a short time, completely ruined themselves. Another evil was the want of time for reading and improving themselves, which they could not do, unless they broke into the hours which ought to be devoted to refreshing sleep; whilst numbers of them, from the same canse neglected their religious exercises, and thus gradually became hardened in vice. There were some people who said that the masters were against curtailing the hours of labour: this, however, he was enabled to contradict, for the system entailed not only slavery on the assistants, but on the masters also; and he was happy to say that many of the shopkeepers of Birkenhead had signed a declaration to shorten the hours of labour.

Dr. Orpen moved the first resolution, which was to the following effect :-

"That the long hours of business so prevalent in retail trades, precluding, as they do, the proper opportunities for healthful exercise and the cultivation of the higher faculties of man, are destructive to the health, degrading to the morals, and injurious to the highest spiritual interests of the persons employed in them."

He said, That the present opportunity