born and brought up among themselves, that he was Elijah, Jeremiah, or one of the prophets, evidently presuppose it, Matt. xvi. 14; John ix. 2. There is reason to believe, however, that this strange doctrine was not universal; and that afterwards, when the doctrines of the Gospel concerning a future state became better known, the opinions of the Talmudists had a much greater conformity to them, than the opinions of some of their predecessors in and before the days of our Saviour. Thus were life and immortality more clearly brought to light by the Gospel.* "At 1. THE Jewish people generally lived upon food of the plainest description. Boaz complimented Ruth, who was much his inferior in rank, by permitting her to partake of his meal, of the nature of which we may judge from the passage: meal-time come thou hither, and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside the reapers: and he reached her parched corn, and she did eat, and was sufficed, and left." (Ruth ii. 14.) Of as plain and simple a descrip tion was the supply of food brought to David and his companions in arms, when he had been obliged to fly from Jerusalem. "Two hundred loaves of bread, and an hundred bunches of raisins, and an hundred of summer-fruits, and a bottle of wine," 2 Sam. xvi. 1:-also chap. xvii. 28, 29, (6 And they brought beds, and basons, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of kine, for David, and for the people that were with him to eat." The simplest and most ordinary diet of the Jews, prepared by themselves, was bread, ‡ which was commonly baked in a wooden bowl, or knead 12. In the Miscellaneous Works of Mr. Harmer (8vo. London, 1823), there is a most valuable and interesting account of the Jewish doctrine of the resurrection of the dead. That this fact was admitted among the descendants of Abraham, Mr. Harmer satisfactorily proves, both from the sacred Scriptures, and some of the most celebrated Jewish writers. But although they agree upon the fact, they differ materially as to the subjects of it. From a treatise, by Manasseh-ben-Israel, an eminent Jew of Amsterdam, and from another, by Dassovius, a later German Jew, it appears to be the general opinion of this people, that the resurrec-ing-trough (Exod. viii. 3), in which the dough is tion will not extend to all dead men: but they find it difficult to decide upon the persons who will be excluded. Some of them have supposed that only the just of the Jewish nation will arise: the famous Rabbi David Kimchi was of this opinion. Rabbi Bechai, on the contrary, thought that the wicked as well as the good were to arise: but still he limits the resurrection to the Israelites. Others, among whom is the great Maimonides, differ from both these classes, as they do not exclude the Gentiles from the resurrection, but suppose that some good people among them shall partake of their honour: among these they reckon Plato and Socrates. But neither of these collections will enable us to determine, with sufficient clearness and precision, what was the opinion of the Jews in the time of our Lord, as to the extent of the resurrection. This is only to be known by carefully comparing the sentiments of the modern Jews with the hints given by Paul of the opinions of those in his time. † SECTION V. DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND REPASTS. 1. Bread-2. Wines-3. Milk, Butter, Butter-milk, &c.-4. Meals, and Repasts of the Jews-5. Manner of Eating-6. Posture at Table-7. Portions sent to the absent-8. Grace at Meals. * Brown's Jewish Antiq., p. ix., sect. 14. mixed with leaven, or suffered to stand and ferment until it becomes sour. Sometimes their bread was baked on the hearth (Gen. xviii. 6), which is still a common method in the East. § Another kind of bread was baked in a shallow earthen vessel, like a frying-pan (Lev. ii. 7), and some round the outside of a great stone pitcher, properly heated, on which was poured a thin paste of meal and water. Parkhurst thinks this is alluded to in Exod. xvi. 31. Sometimes they bake it in an oven in the ground, four or five feet deep, well plastered with mortar, against the sides of which they place the bread, where it is instantly done. 2. Wine appears to have been a beverage much in request amongst the Hebrews, and it was sometimes drank to such an extent as to cause ebriety -a circumstance which has furnished the prophets with many tropes. (See Isai. v. 11-22, xxviii. 1—11, xlix. 26; Jer. viii. 14, ix. 14, xvi. 48; Deut. xxxii. 42.) (1) Wine was prescribed as part of the daily offering to God, under the law, (Exod. xxix. 40; Numb. xxviii. 7), and it was also used by our Saviour at the institution of the Last Supper. (Mark xiv. 35.) That wine was drunk on sacra + See Shaw, p. 236; Niebuhr, tom. i., p. 188. || Harmer's Observations, iv., Ob. 16, § See Harmer, vol. i., p. 232, &c. 66 given to the buyer instead of good wine, and was consequently used tropically for any kind of adulteration, Isai. 1. 22; 2 Cor. ii. 17. Wine was frequently diluted after it was bought. There is a sort of wine called, dinega, or strong drink." It was made of dates, and of various sorts of seeds and roots, and was sufficiently powerful at any time to occasion intoxication. It was drunk mixed with water, and from this was made an artificial beverage (†) which was taken at meals, with vegetables and bread, Ruth ii. 14. It was also a common drink (Numb. vi. 3), and was used by the Roman soldiers, Matt. xxvii. 48. Further, there is a wine called by the Talmudists vinegar, whence the passage in Matt. xxvii. 34, may be explained. mental occasions by the disciples of Christ, at a | part, means a wine diluted with water, which was subsequent period, appears from 1 Cor. xi. 21, where the apostle sharply reproves some of the Corinthian professors of Christianity, because they intoxicated themselves at the holy supper. In Deut. xiv. 22-26, the Hebrews are commanded to tithe all their increase or productions, and to eat of this tithe before the Lord, in the place where he shall appoint. If the place where they lived should be too distant, however, to permit them to carry up their tithe with them, then they were to sell it, to carry the money with them, and to purchase " oxen or sheep, or wine, or strong drink, or whatsoever their soul desireth;" and to eat and rejoice before the Lord. At the weddingfeast, in Cana of Galilee (John ii. 2, 11), Jesus turned water into wine, for the accommodation of the guests who were present; and Paul directs Timothy to drink a little wine, on account of his frequent infirmities, 1 Tim. v. 23. On special occasions of feasting, such as weddings, thanksgivings, and the like, the Jews were accustomed to drink wine, and the Scriptures nowhere speak of the custom with disapprobation. When wisdom invites her guests to a feast (Prov. ix. 2-5), she furnishes her table, and. " mingles her wine," and cries, "Come, eat of my bread, and drink of the wine which I have mingled." The wise man directs that "strong drink" should be "given to him that is ready to perish, and wine unto those that be of heavy hearts," Prov. xxxi. 6. (2) Professor Stuart, to whom biblical literature is so much indebted, has recently devoted his attention to the subject of wines and strong drinks, as mentioned and approved of in the Bible, and has laboured to prove that the description of wine, the use of which was prescribed and sanctioned by the Almighty and his people, was the unfermented juice of the grape, and not wine produced by the process of fermentation. The inquiry is one that merits all the attention that can be given to it; but it would be out of place to enter upon it here. We will only remark, therefore, that the attempt to show that the approved wine is always called w♫ tirosh, while the fermented, intoxicating, and denounced liquor is as uniformly called "ayin, fails in its object; because in Prov. xxxi. 6, among other places, it is directed that wine ( ayin) should be given to those who are heavy of heart, or bitter of soul. (3) Although the wine used in eastern countries is in general very rich in quality, it is at times mixed with spices, especially myrrh; and this mixture was sometimes denominated by the Hebrews from a word which signifies mixed. But the word in question (bn), for the most (4) The vessels used for drinking were, at first, horns; but the Hebrews used horns only for the purpose of performing the ceremony of anointing. The other drinking vessels were, a cup of brass, covered with tin, in form resembling a lily (1 Kings vii. 26); and the bowl, resembling a lily also (Exod. xxv. 33), although it seems to have varied in form, for it had many names, as ɲ, D1, 793, and nycp. 3. In eastern countries, every preparation of milk is in general request. Coagulated sour milk, which is a most refreshing beverage, is prepared by the infusion of a certain herb, which causes fermentation. Butter is generally procured by putting the milk into a goat's skin, which is so tied up as to prevent the milk from running out, and then hung between the poles of a tent or house, where it is agitated in one uniform direction, till a separation is caused between the butter and the milk. Butter-milk is a luxury, and the chief dessert among the Moors; and when they speak of the extraordinary agreeableness of any thing, they compare it to butter-milk. It is no wonder, then, that Jael gave it to Sisera (Judg. v. 25). 4. The Orientals are in the habit of rising early, commonly with the dawn, that they may have leisure to rest or sleep in the middle of the day. As soon as they are up, they take breakfast, which consists of bread, fried eggs, cheese, honey, and leban, or coagulated sour milk; but sometimes they begin with grapes and other fruits, fresh gathered, and then have for breakfast, bread, coffee, and good wines, particularly one of an exquisite flavour, called muscadel.† About eleven o'clock in the forenoon, in winter, they dine, and i., p. 57; Clarke, vol. iii., p. 419, 4to. rather earlier in summer. A piece of red cloth, cut in a round form, is spread upon the divan under the table, to prevent it from being soiled, and a long piece of cloth is laid round, to cover the knees of such as sit at table; but the table itself has no covering except the victuals. The dishes, &c. are disposed in proper order around the edges, and in the centre. Among the great, the dishes are brought in one by one, and after each person has eaten a little, they are changed.* The pottage of which we read in Scripture, was made by cutting boiled meat into small pieces, with rice, flour, and parsley; but sometimes of meal and herbs alone, for they eat but little animal food in the East.t When they intend to honour any person at table, the master sends him a larger portion, as Joseph did to Benjamin, Gen. xliii. 34. In general, they sup about five o'clock in winter, and about six in summer. As this much resembles their dinner, it is unnecessary to describe it. with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head; and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment," Luke vii. 36. According to our notions, a person sitting at meat would, of necessity, have his feet on the floor under the table, and consequently BEFORE him, not behind him: and the impossibility of one standing at his feet behind him-standing, and while standing, kissing his feet, wiping them, &c., is glaring. By this explanation, however, the narration becomes intelligible: the feet of the person recumbent, being outermost, are most exposed to salutation, or to any other treatment, from one standing behind him. The same observations apply to John xii. 3: "Lazarus was one who reclined at table with Jesus; and Mary anointed the fect of Jesus," &c.§ It is only necessary to add, that at these times the people commonly throw off their sandals, and are therefore barefoot. 7. In former times, portions were sent to those who were absent, Neh. viii. 10, 12; Esth. ix. 22. It should ever be recollected, too, that the men and the women in higher life had separate tables (Esth. i. 9), as is the case in the East at the present day. The custom of the Arabs, also, who never preserve fragments of their meals, but invite the poor to partake of them, may explain the reason why Tobit sent for the poor to partake of his dinner (chap. ii. 2); and why the poor, the maimed, and the blind, were invited to the 5. Their mode of eating must not be overlooked. The thick meats they take up with the thumb and the two fore-fingers; and their milk and pottage is eaten by dipping bread into it. When they drink water at table, it is usually out of shells, horns, or cups; but if from a river, they take it from the palm of the hands; or if from a pitcher, or the ground, they suck it through their sleeve, for fear of leeches. Wines were formerly very common among the Jews, being kept in lea-rich man's supper, in Luke xiv. 21. thern bottles (Matt. ix. 17), and cooled by the snow of Lebanon. 6. Sitting at meals (till near the end of the times of the Old Testament) appears to have been universal, Gen. xliii. 33; Exod. xxxii. 6; 1 Sam. xx. 5; Prov. xxiii. 1; Ezek. xliv. 3, &c. We have the first indications of the change of posture from sitting to lying, in Amos vi. 4, and Judith xii. 15, Greek. In our Saviour's days the reclining posture at meals had become universal; and every time that sitting at meat is mentioned in the New Testament, it ought to have been rendered "lying," to make it accord with the universal practice. For want of discriproper mination and description, with regard to this attitude at table, several passages in the Gospels are not merely injured in our translation, but are rendered unintelligible. Thus, "A woman in the city, who was a sinner, when she knew that Jesus SAT at meat in the Pharisee's house, brought an alabaster-box of ointment, and stood at his feet BEHIND HIM, Weeping; and began to wash his feet 8. From the Mishna it appears that the Jews had forms of thanksgiving, not only at the eating of the passover, but before and after ordinary meals, and even on the introduction of many of the dishes. The duty of Christians on this subject is enforced, not only by the reason of the thing, and the practice of the Greeks, Romans, and Jews, but by the example of our Saviour, in Mark viii. 6; John vi. 11, 23; and of Paul, in Acts xxvii. 35. In the end of the fifth book of the Apostolical Constitutions, is a form of grace or prayer for Christians.** SECTION VI. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. I. FORMS OF POLITENESS: 1. Salutations-2. Prostration3. Presents made to Superiors-4. Manner of conducting visits. II. MARKS OF HONOUR: Presentation of raiment. III. MARKS OF DISGRACE: 1. Cutting the beard-2. Clapping the hands and hissing.-3. Refusing the rites of sepulture 4. Disinterment of the dead, &c. § Fragments to Calmet, No. 104; and Critica Biblica, vol. ii., pp. 481-487. Murray's Account of Discov. and Trav, in Asia, book ii., ch. 8; Burckhardt's Trav. in Syria, &c., pp. 484-488. ** Brown's Jewish Antiq., pt. ix., sect. 5. I. The modes of address and politeness, which | leave of each other, there is a beautiful allusion in custom has established in different nations, are the following expression of our Lord, in his last various. In Judea, as in the East generally, they and consolatory discourse with his disciples, when were very ceremonious and exact in their outward he assured them he would soon leave them and decorum; and in their mutual behaviour they go to the Father: "Peace I leave with you; my scrupulously observed all the rules and forms in peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth which civility was usually expressed. give I unto you," John xiv. 27. Since I must 1. We collect from several passages in the Old Testament, that their salutations and expressions of affection, on meeting each other, were extremely tedious and tiresome, containing many particular inquiries after the person's welfare, and the welfare of his family and friends; and, when they parted, concluding with many reciprocal wishes of happiness and benediction on each other. Much time was spent in the rigid observance of these ceremonious forms: when our Lord, therefore, in his commission to the Seventy, whom he dispatched into the towns and villages of Judea to publish the gospel, strictly ordered them to "salute no man by the way" (Luke x. 4), he designed only, by this prohibition, that they should suffer nothing to retard and impede them in their progress from one place to another; and that they should not lavish those precious moments, which ought to be devoted to the sacred and arduous duties of their office, in observing the irksome and unmeaning modes of life. Not that our Lord intended his disciples should studiously violate all common civility and decency, and industriously offend against the rules of courteousness and decorum; on the contrary, he commanded them, upon their entrance into any house, to salute it (Matt. x. 12), and observe the customary form of civility in wishing it peace, or universal happiness, Luke x. 5. This injunction, to salute no one on the road, means only that they should urge their course with speed, and advert to nothing so much as the duties of their commission. There is a parallel passage in the Old Testament, and which beautifully illustrates this. Elisha, dispatching his servant Gehazi to recover the son of the Shunamite, strictly enjoins him to make all the expedition possible: "Gird up thy loins, and take my staff in thine hand, and go thy way. If thou meet any man, salute him not; and if any salute thee, answer him not again,” 2 Kings iv. 29.* Though the terms of these modes of address and politeness are expressive of the profoundest respect and homage, they soon degenerate, through constant use and frequency of repetition, into mere verbal forms and words of course, in which the heart has no share. To those empty, insignificant forms which men mechanically repeat at meeting or taking * See Fragments to Calmet, No. 40. shortly be torn from you, I now bid you adieu, sincerely wishing you every happiness: not as the world giveth give I unto you-not in the unmeaning, ceremonial manner the world repeats this salutation: for my wishes of peace and happiness to you are sincere, and my blessing and benediction will devolve upon you every substantial felicity. This throws light upon one of the most beautiful pieces of imagery which the genius and judgment of a writer ever created. In the Epistle to the Hebrews (chap. xi.), the author informs us with what warm, anticipating hopes of the Messiah's future kingdom those great and good men, who adorn the annals of former ages, were animated. These all, says he, died in faith-they closed their eyes upon the world, but they closed them in the transporting assurance that God would accomplish his promises. They had the firmest persuasion that the Messiah would bless the world. By faith they antedated these happy times, and placed themselves, in idea, in the midst of all their fancied blessedness. They hailed this most auspicious period-saluted it, as one salutes a friend whose person we recognize, at a distance. These all died in faith-died in the firm persuasion that God would accomplish these magnificent promises, though they themselves had not enjoyed them, but only had seen them afar off. God had only blessed them with a remote prospect of them. They were therefore persuaded of them-they had the strongest conviction of their reality they embraced them— with transport saluted them at a distance-confessing that they were but strangers and pilgrims upon earth, but were all travelling towards a city which had foundations, whose builder and maker is God! 2. Among the eastern nations, it was ever customary for the common people, whenever they approached their prince, or any person of dignity, to prostrate themselves. This mode of address obtained also among the Jews. When honoured with admittance to their sovereign, or introduced to illustrious personages, they fell down at their feet, and continued in this servile posture till they were raised. There occur many instances of this custom in the Scriptures. The wise men who The word in the original is the same as is always used in salutations. 3. From time immemorial it has also been the universal custom in the East to send presents one to another. No one waits upon a prince, or any person of distinction, without a present. This is a token of respect never dispensed with. Let the present be ever so mean and inconsiderable, yet the intention of the giver is accepted. Plutarch informs us, that a peasant happening to fall in the way of Artaxerxes, the Persian monarch, in one of his excursions, having nothing to present to his sovereign, according to the oriental custom, the countryman immediately ran to an adjacent stream, filled both his hands, and offered it to his prince. The monarch smiled, and graciously received it, highly pleased with the good disposition the act manifested.* All modern books of travels into the East abound with examples of this universally prevailing custom. "It is accounted uncivil," says Maundrell, "to visit in Syria without an offering in hand. All great men expect it, as a kind of tribute to their character and authority; and look upon themselves as affronted, and even defrauded, when this compliment is omitted. Even in familiar visits among inferiors, you will seldom see them come without bringing a flower, or an orange, or some other token of respect, to the person visited; the Turks, in this point, keeping up the ancient oriental custom, as hinted, 1 Sam. ix. 7, 8: If we go,' says Saul, what shall we bring the man of God? there is not a present,' &c. which words are unquestionably to be understood in conformity to this eastern custom, as relating to a token of respect, and not a price of divination."+ came from the east, when they saw the child | you, either standing at the edge of the duan, or Jesus with his mother Mary, fell down and wor- else lying down at one corner of it, according as shipped him; as did great numbers in after times. he thinks it proper to maintain a greater or less It was also customary to kiss the hand or the feet distinction. Being come to the side of the duan, of the person approached; to kiss the hem of his you slip off your shoes, and stepping up, take garment; or to embrace his feet, Luke vii. 38, 45; your place, which you must do, first, at some disMatt. xxviii. 9. tance, and upon your knees, laying your hand very formally before you. Thus you must remain till the man of quality invites you to draw nearer, and to put yourself in an easier posture, leaning upon the bolster. Being thus fixed, he discourses with you as the occasion offers, the servants standing round all the while in a great number, and with the profoundest respect, silence, and order imaginable. When you have talked over your · business, or compliments, or whatever other concern brought you thither, he makes a sign to have things brought in for the entertainment, which is generally a little sweetmeat, a dish of sherbet, and another of coffee; all which are immediately brought in by the servants, and tendered to all the guests in order, with the greatest care and awfulness imaginable. And they have reason to look well to it; for should any servant make but the least slip or mistake, either in delivering or receiving his dish, it might cost him fifty, perhaps a hundred, drubs on his bare feet, to atone for the crime. At last comes the finishing part of your entertainment, which is, perfuming the beards of the company; a ceremony which is performed in this manner. They have for this purpose a small silver chafing-dish, covered with a lid full of holes, and fixed upon a handsome plate. In this they put some fresh coals, and upon them a piece of lignum aloes, and then shutting it up, the smoke immediately ascends, with a grateful odour, through the holes of the cover. It is held under every one's chin, and offered, as it were, a sacrifice to his beard. The bristly idol soon perceives the reverence done to it, and so greedily takes in and incorporates the gummy steam, that it retains the savour of it, and may serve for a nosegay a good while after. This ceremony may, perhaps, seem ridiculous at first hearing; but it passes among the Turks for a high gratification. And I will say this, in its vindication, that its design is very wise and useful. For it is understood to give a civil dismissal to the visitants, intimating to them, that the master of the house has business to do, or some other avocation, that permits them to go away as soon as they please; and the sooner after this ceremony the better. By this means you may, at any time, without offence, deliver yourself from being detained from your affairs by tedious and unseasonable visits, and from being con strained to use that piece of hypocrisy, so common in the world, of pressing those to stay longer : 4. The same writer thus describes the mode of visiting in the East: "When you would make a visit to a person of quality, you must send one before with a present, to bespeak your admission, and to know at what hour your coming may be most seasonable. Being come to the house, the servants meet you at the outermost gate, and conduct you toward their lord's or master's apartment; other servants (I suppose of better rank) meeting you in the way, at their several stations, as you draw nearer to the person you visit. Coming into his room, you find him prepared to receive * Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii., pp. 279–287. Journey, March 11. |