ceives that Providence has left us these, as everlasting monuments of the veracity of that Sacred History with which we are favoured. In fact, that they are part, at least, of the labours of the Israelites, previous to the exodus; and that they remain to witness the leading events of that portion of the history of the sons of Jacob. The following considerations are advanced in support of this opinion. (1) If we inquire what were the labours of the Israelites for the Pharaohs, we find that they consisted in making bricks, to be hardened in the sun, for such bricks alone require the assistance of straw in their composition, which material is particularly mentioned by the officers of this people, Exod. i. 14. Now, it appears from various travellers, that the internal construction of these mighty masses consists, among other materials, of brick of this description; and thereby agrees with that circumstance of the sacred narrative. This is true of the great pyramid, which is usually visited; but the pyramids of Sakkara, at some distance, are wholly composed of sun-burnt bricks, so that these are undeniable. (2) The multitude, when in the wilderness, regret the fish which they ate in Egypt, freely [gratis; not at their own expense], the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the onions, the garlick, Numb. xi. 5. In conformity with this, we are told by Herodotus, that on the pyramid was an inscription, "expressing the expense of the articles of food consumed by the labourers; radishes (the leeks, perhaps, of Scripture), onions and garlick; they cost 1,600 talents of silver." No doubt these vegetables were cheap enough; so that this considerable sum implies a prodigious number of workmen, employed during a great length of time. Herodotus also admires the further sum which must have been expended in food and clothes. Aaron was able to take a journey (which usually occupies treo months, says Dr. Shaw) to Mount Horeb, to meet Moses, which had he been kept without intermission to his labour, would have been impossible. Indeed, if the Israelites laboured in the field, they could not have been constantly employed in building; and that they did labour in the field is evident from their possession of great herds of cattle, when they went out of Egypt. Add to this, that their profession was that of shepherds, that they were placed in the richest pasturage in Egypt, that Moses stipulates that not a hoof should be left behind, and that the very institution of the passover-lamb implies the possession of flocks; these, with other circumstances, show clearly that the Israelites must have had intervals of time, in which to pay attention to their own property and business. (4) It is almost certain that the native Egyptians, or the governing nation, at least, did not labour on these structures; for Diodorus Siculus says (lib. i. cap. 2), "He [Sesostris] built . . . . he employed in these works none of his own subjects, but only the labours of captives. He was even careful to engrave these words on the temples, No Egyptian had a hand in this structure. They say, further, that the captives brought from Babylon, unable to endure these labours, found means to escape, and. . . . made war against the Egyptians, &c. It is therefore likely that the stranger Israelites found in Egypt, by "the king who knew not Joseph," and whose increasing numbers and strength he dreaded, would be set to labour, though in mere waste of their strength, on structures only useful in a political view, rather than any of the natural inhabitants, toward whom the same policy was not necessary. This conduct was afterwards adopted by Solomon (1 Kings ix. 27); "Solomon built. . . . of the Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites, &c., who were not of the children of Israel, did Solomon levy a tribute of bond service but of the children of Israel did Solomon make no bondmen; but they were men of war," &c. (3) As to the number of persons employed in their erection, Diodorus Siculus says, that 360,000 workmen or slaves were occupied twenty years in constructing the pyramid of Chemnis. Herodotus says, 100,000 were employed in bringing stones; (5) That it was anciently, as it still is in the 10,000 at a time, who relieved each other every East, the custom to employ bondmen in building, three months. It may be supposed, therefore, is notorious; we have therefore only to inquire, that the number given by Diodorus, includes the whether this character was attached to the Israelwhole of the population employed in all depart-ites. It is expressly attributed to them; for they ments, while the number given by Herodotus is that employed in a specific department; but, that were relieved every three months, and that only a proportion of one tenth was employed at a time, seems to have been a kind of rule in the business. Now, it is very likely that the Israelites were in this manner relieved; for we find (Exod. iv. 27), that the mother of Moses was able to conceal him, when an infant, no longer than three months. And all are said to be brought out of the house of bondage (Exod. xx. 2); they are charged to remember they were bondmen in Egypt, Deut. vi. 21, xv. 15. That the Israelites did not make brick only, but performed other labours of building, may be inferred from Exod. ix. 8, 10. Moses took "ashes of the furnace”—no doubt that which was tended by his people. So Ps. lxxx. 6: “I remember his shoulder from the burden, and his hands were delivered from the mortar-basket" (not pots, as in our translation); and with this rendering agree the LXX., Vulgate, Symmachus, and others. It is recorded, indeed, that the Israelites built cities for Pharaoh, and in such building they might and must carry the burden, and the mortar-basket (analogous to our mortar-hod); yet as their delivery from these things is spoken of, as the furnace is evidently not distant from the residence of Pharaoh, and as there is no reason to suppose that soon after they had built these cities they were dismissed; these circumstances seem to corroborate the positive testimony of Josephus, that Israel was employed on the pyramids. We may, perhaps, attribute the omission of finishing the last pyramid to the confusions consequent on the death of Pharaoh in the Red Sea, and the hatred which attended his memory among the genuine Egyptians, to which race he did not belong; but was usurper over them, as he was a tyrant over Israel. (6) The space of time allotted to the erection of these immense masses, coincides with what is usually allotted to the slavery of the Israelites. Israel is understood to have been in Egypt 215 years, of which Joseph ruled seventy years; nor was it till long after his death that the " new king arose, who knew not Joseph." If we allow about forty years for the extent of the generation which succeeded Joseph, added to his seventy, there remain about a hundred and five years to the exodus. Now, Herodotus tells us, *that "till the reign of Rampsinitus (the Rammesses of Scripture) Egypt was not only remarkable for its abundance, but for its excellent laws. Cheops, who succeeded this prince, degenerated into the extremest profligacy of conduct. He barred the avenues to every temple, forbade the Egyptians from offering sacrifices, and next proceeded to make them labour servilely for himself, by building the pyramids. Cheops reigned fifty years. His brother Chephren succeeded, and reigned fifty-six years he adopted a similar conduct. Thus for the space of 106 years were the Egyptians exposed to every species of oppression and calamity; not having in all this period permission to worship in their temples. For the memory of these two monarchs they have so extreme an aversion, that they are not willing to mention their names. They call their pyramids by the name of the shepherd PHILITIS, who at that time fed his cattle in those places. Mycerinus succeeded Chephren, disapproved his father's conduct, commanded the temples to be opened, and the people, who had been reduced to the most extreme affliction, were again permitted to offer sacrifice.* Here are plain traces of a government by a foreign family, and of a worship contrary to that which had been previously established in Egypt; which agrees exactly with circumstances narrated in Exodus. The historian relates that it lasted 106 years, in which it coincides with the bondage-time of the sons of Israel. (7) But there is information couched under the ambiguous mention of the shepherd Philitis, which should not escape us. It is clear that the Egyptians could not call the kings by whose order the pyramids (plural) were built by this name, in the hearing of Herodotus, since they referred them to their kings Cheops and Chephren; besides which, it would seem that the shepherd Philitis had formerly and customarily fed his cattle elsewhere. We may, therefore, understand this passage thus: They attributed the labour of constructing these pyramids to a shepherd who came from Philistia; but who at that time fed his cattle in the land of Egypt." Implying, that they more readily told the appellation of the workmen [the sons of Israel, the shepherd, Gen. xlvii. 5] employed in the building, than of the kings by whose commands they were built. They seem to have done the same in the days of Diodorus, who remarks, They admit that these works are superior to all which are seen in Egypt; not only by the immensity of their mass, and by their prodigious cost, but still more by the beauty of their construction; and the workmen who have rendered them so perfect are much more estimable than the kings who paid their cost; for the former have hereby given a memorable proof of their genius and skill, whereas the kings contributed only the riches left by their ancestors, or extorted from their subjects... They say the first was erected by Armaus, the second by Ammosis, the third by Inaron." The first name, Armaus, Mr. Taylor corrects into Aramaus, that is, "the Syrian :" and then the title perfectly coincides with the mention of the shepherd of Palestine, by Herodotus. This passage being extremely curious, and perhaps never properly understood, the original Greek is subjoined :+ —τὴν μεγιστὴν ποιῆσαι λεγούσιν ̓Αρμαῖον, Γ' Αραμαλον ] τὴν δὲ δευτέραν ̓Αμμώσιν, τὴν δὲ τριτὴν 'Ivagava. (8) This coincidence will appear more striking, if the names be considered distinct from their prefixes; for if we compare them with the description of Moses and Aaron (Exod. vi. 26, 27), * Herod., lib. ii., cap. 124, Diod. Sic. lib. i., sect. 2. we find them the same, as near as traditionary | that he raised three mountains called Rucmadri, pronunciation by natives of different countries Rajatadri, and Retnadri; or, the MOUNTAIN of could bring it aMousin, or haMousin, is hu- gold, of silver, of gems. The author says, mounMouseh, nw 817; and in Arona, or hin Arona, istains, but it appears, says Major Wilford, from hu Aaron, 1778 81; which, where two vowel sounds came together, took a consonant between them when spoken-hun Aaron. This, therefore, confirms the supposition, that the Israelites were employed on the pyramids; first, under the appellation of the Syrian, or Aramean [the very title given to Jacob: "An Aramite ready to perish was my father, he went down into Egypt... and the Egyptians evil entreated us, and afflicted us, and laid upon us hard bondage," Deut. xxvi. 5]; and afterwards, under the names of the two most famous principals of that people. (9) But beside the names of Moses and Aaron, the builders, we may possibly find that the names of the kings by whose order they were built are also preserved, so far, at least, as by the help of Scripture to afford assistance in this inquiry. "Rampsinitus [supposed to be the Remphis of the next paragraph, from Diodorus Siculus].... possessed such abundance of wealth, that, so far from surpassing, none of his successors ever equalled him in affluence," says Herodotus; who also relates a history of his treasury, from which the least we can gather is, that it was very extraordinary. "Remphis (son of Protheus), having succeeded his father, employed the whole period of his reign in increasing his revenues, and amassing gold and silver.... he left behind him more riches than any of his predecessors; for it is said that in his coffers were found 400,000 talents."* (10) Raumesses or Raugmesses (Benjamin of Tudela writes it Raghmesses; Eusebius, Ramises; Josephus, Ramphates; and such differences indicate a foreign origin) is the name of a town (Exod. i. 11, xii. 37), apparently named after this king of Egypt; and if pronounced Rucmetses, it would be the Indian Rucmaratsa. This elision is common in India, and Major Wilford adopts it himself, by supposing that the Tamoratsa of this passage is the Timaus of the Greek writers. Rucmaratsa was, say the Puranas, NOT OF THE ROYAL RACE OF EGYPT; but his grandfather Tamoratsa defeated the Egyptian king, "placed himself on the throne of Misra, and governed the kingdom with perfect equity; his son Bahya-vatsa devoted himself to religion, having resigned his dominion to his son Rucmaratsa, who tenderly loved his people, and so highly improved this country, that from his just revenues he amassed an incredible treasure. His wealth was so great, *Diod. Sic., lib. i.. sect. ?. the context, that they were fabrics [the Arabs, and Turks call them Djebel Pharouni, Pharaoh's Mountains, to this day]. There can be little or no doubt, that they are the three pyramids near Misra-sthan, or Memphis. Rucmavatsa was no tyrant to his own people, whom he cherished, says the Mahacalpa,' as if they had been his own children; but he might have compelled the native Egyptians to work, for the sake of keeping them employed, and subduing their spirit. The first was said to be of gold, because coated with yellow marble; the second of silver, because coated with white marble; the third of gems, because coated with variegated marble;" or perhaps, marbles set in some pattern. (11) Now the opposite character of this Rutmavatsa, says Mr. Taylor, is what we should expect would be delivered by writers of opposite nations. (1) He was a foreigner introduced by conquest, therefore, "he knew not Joseph," nor cared for any former services rendered by that "Saviour of the (Egyptian) world." (2) He tenderly loved his people—yes, his own people, foreigners like himself; but the Egyptians were not so fond of him; they rather banished his name from their memory, and hated the mention of it. (3) From his just revenues he amassed treasures— but his conquered subjects would describe this as iniquitous exaction (4) This family shut up the temples; and we are sure they prohibited sacrifices in the instance of Israel. This might be piety in the opinion of the writers of the Mahacalpa; but the original Egyptians would esteem it persecution for religion's sake, and consequently wickedness of no common guilt. (5) He built three mountains: rather, three mountains were built during the reign of his family; on these he did not employ his own people, but partly the native Egyptians, with others whom he found in the country (the mixed multitude of Exod. xii. 38), and partly the Israelites, whom he wished to subdue by labour. The character of this prince agrees sufficiently to prove his identity; and it disagrees sufficiently to prove, that on one side it is viewed with the eye of national and religious partiality; on the other, with the aversion of national and religious abhorrence. It is impossible to refrain from observing how aptly historical narration and geographical discussion illustrate each other. And we form this general conclusion, that so many coincidences justify us in believing that the pyramids of Egypt were built when Israel was in that land; were partly con 2. Ethiopia was once a very large empire, consisting of forty-five kingdoms, according to Pliny. It is exceedingly mountainous. Some of the mountains are of salt, and others abound with mines of iron, copper, and gold. Its chief river is the Nile, into which almost all the inferior ones run. structed by that people; and that the labours they exacted fostered that aversion of mind which the true Egyptians entertained against the memories of their oppressors; so that in later ages, the priests rather mentioned, to inquiring foreigners, the names of the operative builders, than of the kings whose treasures had been expended on their construction. As to the difference of names between Cheops and Ramesses; probably one may be a title, or a name taken on a certain occasion; or one may be a Hindoo, the other an Egyptian, appellation. At all events, we know so little on this subject, that no objection can be main-modern Abyssinians is plainly a dialect of the tained from it without further information. (12) But though it be admitted that the Israelites contributed to erect the pyramids, it does not follow that they cased them with their coating of marble or granite. That was, in all probability, performed by professed artists; the stones were brought from a distance, and doubtless required skill as well as labour in their preparation and use. It is indeed a tradition on the spot, that the Israelites dug out from the rocks adjacent those grottos which show from whence come the layers of stone which accompany the rubble work; and this may be true; but the granite, it is presumed, they did not cut.* II. ETHIOPIA. 1. This country is frequently mentioned in Scripture under the name of Cush, though it is not always intended under that term. The ancients appear to have given the name of Ethiopian to all persons, either perfectly black, or of a very swarthy complexion. The Arabs, therefore, and other Asiatics, as well as a great number of Africans, came under this denomination. Thus the wife of Moses, who was a native of Midian, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, is called a Cushite or Ethiopian, and the river Gihon, which is supposed to be the Araxes, is said to encompass the whole land of Ethiopia, Gen. ii. 13. It is plain, therefore, that there are three countries bearing this name, referred to in Scripture. The proper Ethiopia, however, was on the south of Egypt, on which side it was bounded by the Lesser Cataract, and the island Elephantine; on the west it was bounded by Libya Interior; on the east by the Red Sea; and on the south by a part of Africa unknown to the ancients, and therefore difficult to define. Ethiopia is now known under the name of Abyssinia, one of the large kingdoms of Africa. * We are indebted for the principal part of this account of Egypt, to Calmet's Dictionary, 8vo. edition, where the various speculations which were distributed throughout the Fragments," have been carefully collected and condensed. 3. It appears that about the time of the Hebrew bondage in Egypt, or perhaps in the time of the Judges, the Cushites of Arabia, spoken of before, with part of the descendants of Joktan, passed the Red Sea at the straits of Babelmandel, and settled in this country. The language of the true and ancient Arabic. Many of their laws were similar to those of Egypt, and others resembled the customs of the more civilized Arabs. Ham, the father of Cush, or Jupiter-Ammon, was their chief deity. They likewise paid divine honours to Isis, Pan, Hercules, Esculapius, and others. There is a tradition among the Abys sinians, that their ancestors embraced Judaism in the time of Solomon, to which they stedfastly adhered till their conversion to Christianity. According to this tradition, the queen of Sheba, whom our Saviour calls the queen of the South, and who ruled over at least a powerful nation of Ethiopia, had a son by Solomon, who was educated at that prince's court, and instructed in the law of God, under the care of his father. Being afterwards anointed king of Ethiopia, and sent home to take possession of his kingdom, he was accompanied by several eminent Jewish doctors, under whose superintendence the law of Moses was established among his people. It is certain that circumcision, the observance of the seventh day Sabbath, and a number of other Jewish rites, are practised by the Ethiopians to this day. But that their sovereigns are descended in a direct line from Solomon, it is somewhat difficult to believe. It is probable that the Ethiopians were conquered by Shishak, king of Egypt, either in the time of Solomon, or shortly afterwards. During the civil war which happened in Egypt after his death, Zerah, the Ethiopian, appears to have possessed himself of Egypt and Libya. Intending to add Judea to his dominions, he advanced with a large army against Asa, but was defeated by the Jews, who afterwards assisted the Egyptians to recover their liberty, 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15. About A. M. 3257, So, or Sabacon, king of Ethiopia, reduced Egypt, which then consisted of three or more distinct kingdoms, and entered into an alliance with Hoshea and the Israelites against the king of Assyria, which issued in the destruction of the kingdom of Israel by Shalmaneser, 2 Kings xvii. 1-8. Tirhakah, perhaps the same with Sethar, marched an army against Sennacherib, 2 Kings xix. 9. Some time after, Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, having ravaged Egypt, subdued a great part of Ethiopia, and held the people in bondage for three years, that is, till his death; when the Ethiopians, revolting from the Assyrians, asserted their independence, which they maintained, though a monarchy distinct from Egypt, till the time of Cyrus, by whom, and his successor Cambyses, they seem to have been much harassed, and by Xerxes were either partly or wholly subdued, Isai. xix. 23, xx. 4, 5; Ezek. XXX. 4, 5.* III. LIBYA was a large country on the west of Egypt, the eastern part of which was generally subject to this power. The Lybians or Lubim, assisted the kings of Ethiopia against the Jews (2 Chron. xii. 3; xvi. 8), and the Egyptians against the Assyrians or Chaldeans, Neh. iii. 9; Jer. xlvi. 9; Ezek. xxx. 5. The Libya mentioned by St. Luke (Acts ii. 10), is that by Ptolemy called Libya Cyrenaica, in which dwelt a great number of Jews. This was the country of that Simon who was compelled to carry our Saviour's cross, Matt. xxvii. 32. SECTION III. PROVINCES, CITIES, TOWNS, &C., MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. † ABANA [the rocky river] is a branch of the Barrady, or Chrysorroas, which derives its source from the foot of Mount Libanus, eastward; runs round and through Damascus, and continues its course till lost in the wilderness, four or five leagues south of the city. The Talmudists say, that "the waters of Kirmon and Pigah are not fit to sprinkle the unclean, because they are muddy waters;"-meaning, probably, that running through a chalky soil, or over chalky rocks, they are sullied by the particles they carry with them. Naaman, however, held a different opinion; for he says (2 Kings v. 12), "Are not Abana and Pharphar, rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel?" ABARIM, a range of mountains which spread far into the tribe of Reuben, and the country of Moab, on each side of the Arnon. They were composed of many little hills, under different names; but it is impossible to define their precise extent. Eusebius fixes them at six miles west of Heshbon, and seven east of Livias. The mountains Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor were parts of the range. ABEL, ABEL-BETH-MAACAH, or ABEL-MAIM, a city of Manasseh, lying between Damascus and Paneas. It is sometimes called ABILA (Luke iii. 1); and by Josephus, "Abila in Libanus." The addition of "Beth-Maacah," seems to denote that it was near the temple of the deity or idol Maacah. ABEL-MEHOLAH, a city in the great plain, about 16 miles south of Scythopolis. It was celebrated for the victory over the Midianites obtained here by Gideon (Judg. vii. 22); and also, as the birthplace of Elisha, 1 Kings xix. 16. ABEL-SHITTIM, a city in the plains of Moab, east of Jordan, opposite to Jericho, and in the neighbourhood of Mount Peor. Moses encamped here before the Hebrew army passed the Jordan, under Joshua (Numb. xxv. 1; xxxiii. 49); and here the Israelites, seduced by Balak, fell into idolatry, and worshipped Baal-Peor. ACCAD, a city, built by Nimrod (Gen. x. 10), which the LXX. write Arcad; and the Syriac Achar. Ephraim the Syrian, Abulpharagius, Jerome, the Targum of Jerusalem, and Jonathan call it Nisibis, the antiquity of which is unquestionable. ACCHO, or ACRE, is a town situated on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, on the north angle of the bay to which it gives its name, and which extends in a semi-circle of three leagues, as far as the point of Mount Carmel. Accho was given to the tribe of Asher (Josh. xix. 25. Gr.; Judg. i. 31), but was not possessed by them, being retained by the ancient Canaanites. At different periods, this town has been known by different names. One of the Ptolemies enlarged and beautified it, and called it Ptolemais. The Christian Crusaders named it Acre, or St. John d'Acre, from St. John, who was the tutelar saint of the place. The Arabians call it Acca, or Akka. When Syria was subjected by the Romans, this city was made. a colony by the Emperor Claudius. Its most ancient name AKH, has been observed upon small bronze medals found, though rarely, in the country. The medals of gold and silver, of Alexander the Great, struck in this town, with Phoenician characters, call it Aco. We have many of its medals with Latin inscriptions, but the Greek are very rare. The town of Acre is situated twentyseven miles south of Tyre, and seventy N.W. of Jerusalem. Its population was computed by the Abbé Mariti, in 1760, at 16,000; and by Mr. Brown, in 1797, at 18,000 or 20,000. The early travellers speak of its pristine splendour; but of this few traces remain. Dr. Clarke states, that its external view is the only prospect worth beholding. The sight of the interior exactly resembles what is seen in Constantinople, and in the generality of Turkish cities: narrow, dirty lanes, |