Ezek. iv. 2; xxi. 22); or endeavoured to enter The diagram occupying the following page affords them by burning the gates, and cutting down the a good idea of this camp. wooden towers, Ezek. xxvi. 9.

CHAP. III.]

THE JEWISH MODE OF DIVIDING THE SPOILS OF WAR.

405

The admirable order of this encampment drew 9. The arms of the Jewish warriors were from Balaam the following exclamation: "How adapted to the exigencies of the occasion. Some goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy taberna- of them wore complete armour; consisting of a cles, O Israel! As the valleys are they spread helmet of brass (1 Sam. xvii. 5), an habergeon, forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees cuirass, or breastplate of brass, a defence for the of lign-aloes which the Lord hath planted, and as back, a girdle for the loins, and greaves of brass cedar-trees beside the waters," Numb. xxiv. 2-6. for the legs and feet (1 Sam. xvii. 6), with a But it is not likely that there were any regularly sword for the right hand, and a shield or buckler formed camps among the Hebrews, similar to for the left. Hence the beautiful allusion to all those of the Romans and other warlike nations. these in St. Paul's description of the Christian In 1 Sam. xxvi. 7, we read that the spear of Saul soldier (Eph. vi. 13—17), where nothing is left was stuck at his head while he slept. This was undefended but the back; to teach us that Christ equivalent to the place of the general's tent.* hates a coward and an apostate; that as long as His armour-bearer and principal officers slept we undauntedly face the foe, we are safe; but if around him, and the rest of the army, in their we turn our backs, we do it at our hazard. But several divisions, in a circle without. This was although some of the soldiers were thus equipped, probably the general manner of their encamp- the greater part wore their ordinary clothing, and were arranged in companies according to their 7. It is impossible to avoid noticing, in reading armour. Thus one part had swords and buckthe historical books of the Old Testament, the lers; another, spears and javelins; a third, battlebarbarities which were mutually practised in the axes (Jer. li. 20); a fourth, slings (Judg. xx. 16; wars carried on between the Israelites and the 2 Kings iii. 25); and a fifth, bows (1 Sam. xxxi adjoining nations. Some were decapitated (13; 1 Chron. v. 18, xii. 2). There are several Sam. xxxi. 9), others had their noses and ears cut highly expressive and beautiful metaphors in the off (Ezek. xxiii. 25), or their hands and feet, New Testament, which are derived from various (2 Sam. iv. 12). Some were put under saws and parts of the Roman armour. See Rom. xiii. 12; harrows of iron, and made to pass through the 2 Cor. vi. 7, &c. brick kiln (2 Sam. xii. 31); mothers were destroyed with their children (Esth. iii. 13); infants were dashed against the stones (2 Kings viii. 12; Ps. cxxxvii. 9; Isai. xiii. 16-18); women with child were ripped up (2 Kings xv. 16; Hos. xiii. 16; Amos i. 13); and persons of rank reduced to the most degrading slavery (Isai. xlvii. 2).

ment.

8. With regard to the spoil taken in war, Moses distinctly recognized the right of the people to it; and the following regulations may be collected out of his writings, relative to its distribution.-1. The spoil in persons and cattle did not belong to the individuals who took it, but was collected, reckoned, and distributed in the following proportions :-(1) One half to those who went to the field, out of which they had to give every five hundredth individual to the priests, Numb. xxxii. 26—29. (2) The other half went to the rest of the Israelites, with the deduction of every fiftieth individual for the Levites, ver. 30. 2. Things inanimate belonged to the individual who seized them, ver. 48–54. David enacted a wise and equitable law relative to the division of spoil in the army; giving equally to those who fought, and those who remained with the stuff or baggage, 1 Sam. xxx. 24, 25.†

* See Iliad, x., 150-155.

+ Michaelis on the Laws of Moses, vol. iii., pp. 37-53.

10. In so mountainous a country as Judea, cavalry could be of no great service, and therefore in the more early periods of their history the Hebrews did not adopt them. Absalom is the first of whom we read making use of them (2 Sam. xv. 1); and they appear to have been of no further service to him than to facilitate his flight (chap. xviii. 9, &c.). Solomon, indeed, sent to Egypt for a considerable number of horses, and a proportionable number of chariots (1 Kings x. 26, &c.); but it seems they were more for splendour than actual service; and hence Rabshakeh, when he marched against Jerusalem, taunted Hezekiah with the remark, that if he should lend him 2000 horses, none of his subjects were capable of riding them (2 Kings xviii. 23). And yet that the Jewish monarchs sometimes employed chariots in their armies is evident from several passages in the books of Kings, Chronicles, &c. Those used by the Canaanites are called "chariots of iron" (Judg. i. 19), because their poles, wheels, and axles were armed with sharp scythes.

11. The qualifications of a Hebrew warrior were so very different from those which are considered essential in modern times, that we are at a loss, without a knowledge of this circumstance,

See Macknight on Eph. vi. 17, and Brown's Antiquities of the Jews, vol. ii., p. 449.

to understand the propriety of some of the com- | pomp of a Roman triumph were of the most magmendations bestowed upon them in the Old Tes-nificent description. After a decisive battle tament writings. The discipline of modern gained, and the complete conquest of a kingdom, tactics was unknown in ancient times, when the the most illustrious captives in war-kings, meanest soldier had an opportunity of distin- princes, and nobles, with their wives and children, guishing himself by his strength and agility. His were, with the last dishonour and ignominy, led bodily strength, if great, enabled him to bear in fetters before the general's chariot, through the down his opponent; and when that was wanting, public streets of Rome, which were crowded by his dexterity in the use of arms, his pretended all classes of persons, in the highest excesses of flight and sudden return, were all employed to joy. On these occasions, indeed, Rome was a deceive and defeat his adversary; whilst the scene of universal festivity: the temples were all closeness of the combat rendered the disarming thrown open, were adorned with garlands, and or death of his antagonist the only means of pre-filled with clouds of incense and the richest perserving himself. Bodily strength, therefore, complete presence of mind, experience in the art of war, and swiftness as a roe, when swiftness was necessary, either to pursue after or avoid the foe, were indispensable ingredients in an ancient warrior; whilst his eye acquired an animation, his countenance an expression, his voice a variety of cadence, and his whole frame a degree of athletic force, which are in vain sought for in the mechanical mass of a modern army. Nor should we forget that the valour of the Jews had often peculiar motives to strengthen it, viz., the motives of religion; for they frequently went to the field under the immediate direction of Je-ganism, supported by the great and powerful, hovah, and with the positive assurance of sucIt is well known, that for the purpose of keeping the military disembarrassed from the cares and distractions of secular life, the Romans prohibited marriage to their soldiery. To this the apostle refers, 2 Tim. ii. 4: "No one that warreth entangleth himself with the affairs of this life; that he may please him who hath chosen him to be a soldier."

cess.*

12. The return of the conquering army has ever been an occasion of the most enthusiastic rejoicing. The circumstances attending the return of Jephthah (Judg. xi. 34), the victory of David over Goliath, and the defeat of the Philistines (1 Sam. xviii. 6, 7), as also that of Judith over the Assyrians (Judith xvi. 1—17), are well known to every reader of the Bible. On a similar occasion was that beautiful lyrical composition, known as the Song of Moses (Ex. xv.), also composed. But there are several beautiful allusions to the return of a triumphant army in the writings of the New Testament, which must not here be passed over. ‡ The splendour and

* Brown's Antiq., vol. ii., p. 458.

A metrical translation of this song may be seen in Critica Biblica, vol. i., pp. 319, 320.

fumes; the spectators were clothed in white garments, hecatombs of victims were slain, and most sumptuous entertainments were given. The illustrious captives, after having been dragged through the city in this procession, and thus publicly exposed, were generally imprisoned, frequently strangled and dispatched in dungeons, or sold for slaves.|| The first allusion to such a spectacle is in Col. ii. 15, where the Redeemer is represented as a great conqueror, who, after having totally vanquished and subjugated all the empires and kingdoms of false religion, and overturned the mighty establishments of Judaism and Pa

celebrates a most magnificent TRIUMPH over them, leads them in procession, openly exposing them to the view of the whole world, as the captives of his omnipotence, and the trophies of his gospel! "Having spoiled principalities and powers, he made a show of them openly, triumphing over them!" § The second passage, whose beautiful and striking imagery is taken from a Roman triumph, occurs 2 Cor. ii. 14-26: "Now thanks be unto God, who always causeth us to triumph in Christ, and maketh manifest the savour of his knowledge by us in every place. For we are unto God a sweet savour of Christ, in them that are saved, and in them that perish: to the one we are a savour of death unto death; and to the other, of life unto life.” In this passage, God is represented, in very striking language and sentiment, as leading the apostles in triumph¶ through

A translation of Plutarch's minute description of the triumphal procession of Paulus Æmilius, who took Perseus, king of Macedon, prisoner, and put a final period to that ancient empire, may be seen in Kennett's Antiquities of Rome, p. 228, &c.

§ The original is, leading them in triumph.

The original here, also, is leadeth us about in triumph.

For the remarks which follow, we are indebted to Dr. "The Greek word, which we render causeth us to triumph, Harwood.

properly signifies to triumph over, or to lead in triumph, as

the world, showing them every where as the monuments of his grace and mercy, and by their means diffusing in every place the odour of the knowledge of God; in reference to a triumph, when all the temples were filled with fragrance, and the whole air breathed perfume. And the apostle, continuing the allusion, adds, that this odour would prove the means of the salvation of some and destruction of others as in a triumph, after the pomp and procession were concluded, some of the captives were put to death, others saved alive.*

13. Among the other military honours and recompences, rich and splendid crowns,† frequently of gold, were publicly bestowed on the illustrious conqueror, and upon every man who, acting worthy the Roman name, had distinguished himself by his valour and his virtue. In allusion to this custom, how beautiful and striking are those many passages of Scripture which represent the Saviour, before angels and the whole assembled world, acknowledging and applauding distinguished goodness, and publicly conferring crowns of immortal glory upon persevering and victorious holiness. See 2 Tim. iv. 8; James i. 12; 1 Pet. v. 4; Rev. ii. 10.

SECTION IV.

TRIBUTE AND MONEY.

as well as of religion; and therefore the tithes, and the portion of sacrifices which the law assigned for their maintenance, were in the nature of taxes payable for the support of the government. Besides these, we read of no other stated taxes, appointed by the law, except a poll-tax of half a shekel, which, when the people were numbered in the wilderness, was levied upon every man from twenty years old and upwards; and it is said to be designed for “ a ransom, or atonement for his soul," and to be "appointed for the service of the tabernacle of the congregation," Exod. xxx. 12—16. This tax, however, appears only to have been resorted to as circumstances required, until the later periods of the Jewish history, when it became a stated annual payment,|| and was demanded of our Saviour, Matt. xvii. 24.§

2. After the captivity, the Jews were tributary, first to the Persians (Ezek. iv. 13, vii. 24), and then to the Greeks; from the latter of whom they were freed by the Maccabees, 1 Mac. x. 29, 30; xi. 35, 36, &c. When Pompey conquered Judea (about ante A. D. 60), the Jews became tributary to the Romans; and in the reign of Augustus (A. D. 8) Judea was reduced into a Roman province, and the people were laid under a direct tax to the state, according to a census held by P. Sulpicius Quirinus, while Coponius was Procurator of Judea. See Luke ii. 2; Acts v. 37. To this tribute the Jews submitted with the utmost reluctance; and it gave rise to several

I. Under Moses.—II. After the Captivity.-III. The Pub- tumults and insurrections. Our Saviour expressly

licans.

1. As the law of Moses was the only body of law enacted by God, the King of Israel, for the government both of church and state, and as the priests were appointed to dispense it, they are properly to be considered the ministers of state,

our translators themselves have rightly rendered it in another
place, Col. ii. 15. And so the apostle's true meaning is plainly
this: Now thanks be to God, who always triumpheth over us
in Christ; leading us about in triumph, as it were, in solemn
procession. This yields a most congruous and beautiful sense
of his words. And in order to display the force of this fine
sentiment, in its full compass and extent, let it be observed,
that when St. Paul represents himself and others as being
led about in triumph, like so many captives, by the prevailing
power and efficacy of gospel grace and truth, his words natu-
rally imply and suggest three things worthy of particular notice
and attention, viz., a contest, a victory, and an open show of
this victory."-"While God was leading about such men in
triumph, he made them very serviceable and successful in pro-
moting Christian knowledge in every place wherever they
came."-Breckell's Discourses, pp. 141, 142, 151.

Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii., pp. 29–34.
+ See Kennett's Rom. Ant., p. 224, &c.

Harwood, vol. ii., pp. 56, 57.

enjoined upon them the obligation to pay it, in which he was followed by his inspired apostles, Matt. xxii. 17-21; Rom. xiii. 8; 1 Pet. ii. 13.

3. The collectors of the Roman taxes in Judea are well known to every reader of the New Testament, under the appellation of Publicans. Of these there appear to have been two kinds; the collectors of the taxes, and the receivers-general. Of the latter order was Zaccheus, who is called a "chief publican," Luke xix. 2. From the extortion and rapacity which was too generally practised by the inferior order of these officers, added to the odium which attached to such an employment in the estimation of the Jews, they were held in the utmost contempt; so that a "publican," and a "sinner," or a notoriously profligate character, were synonymous terms in the time of

Josephus, Jew. Wars, b. vii., c. 6.

§ That this was the tribute demanded of our Lord is evident, as Jennings remarks, from the reason alleged by him why he might have been excused from paying it (ver. 25, 26), and which would not hold good were it a tribute paid to the Roman Emperor, as Salmasius and others have thought.