2. Hence the epistles of Paul will generally be found to be controversial; first discussing and settling the questions of difference between the members of the churches to whom he wrote, or refuting the erroneous sentiments which they had imbibed; and then applying the truths which had passed under review to the purposes of personal edification and holiness. There is not one of his inspired letters of a merely speculative character. The doctrines which are discussed, however sublime and important, are never left without being exhibited in their practical influence on the heart and conduct of the Christian believer. 3. The purpose of the epistles, then, is to be learnt by reading them with care; for an epistle may be made the vehicle of every species of information, and in all various ways. Every thing, whether of doctrine or precept, contained in them, has, more or less, the complexion of familiar letters, and is therefore more easy or difficult to be understood, according to the knowledge which may still be acquired of those contingencies, by which the train of thought in the mind of the writer must have been so much regulated. Sometimes from the contingencies being preserved by collateral testimony, or incorporated with the allusions, we can read the epistles with all, or more than all, the advantages of those to whom they were addressed. Sometimes it is easy to see that the train of thought has allusions to such contingencies as are now irrecoverably lost. But sometimes it is impossible to determine whether the train of thought has, or has not, any such allusions. This is particularly observable in the moral precepts with which the apostle Paul generally concludes his epistles. Here it is perhaps impossible to determine in how far the train of thought proceeds upon circumstances, in the situation and character of those to whom he writes, or according to such connexions as might have been furnished to his subject from the great principles of moral and religious truth. Yet even should the attempt to explain the passages upon the supposition of such abstract connexions be conducted where it has not sufficient ground, no harm to the cause of religion can ensue, provided the connexions, as still might happen, be consistent with the principles whence they are derived. * 4. It is admitted on all hands that the epistles of Paul are the most difficult part of the New Testament to be understood. This results in a great measure, as we have just shown, from the character of the writings themselves. But there are diffi * See Cook's Inquiry into the Books of the New Testament, p. 222, &c. culties in the interpretation of these writings,' resulting almost entirely from the peculiar manner and style in which the apostle has composed them. His numerous parentheses and frequent change of person, without affording the least intimation of the circumstance, render a diligent and close attention requisite on our part, lest we mistake his meaning and object. But, as Macknight justly observes, the apostle always treats of some important article of faith, which, though not formally proposed, is constantly in his view, and is handled according to a preconceived plan, in which his arguments, illustrations, and conclusions are all properly arranged. This the intelligent reader will easily perceive, if, in studying any particular epistle, he keep the subject of it in his eye throughout. For thus he will be sensible that the things written are all connected with the subject in hand, either as proofs of what immediately goes before, or as illustrations of some proposition more remote; or as inferences from premises, sometimes expressed, and sometimes implied; or as answers to objections which, in certain cases, are not stated, perhaps because the persons addressed had often heard them proposed. Nay, he will find that, on some occasions, the apostle adapts his reasoning to the thoughts which he knew would, at that instant, arise in the mind of his readers, and to the answers which he foresaw they would make to his questions, though these answers are not expressed. In short, on a just view of Paul's epistles, it will be found that all his arguments are in point; that whatever incidental matter is introduced, contributes to the illustration of the principal subject; that his conclusions are all well founded; and that the whole is properly arranged. + 5. We have the most convincing evidence of the genuineness and authenticity of the epistles here attributed to Paul. The Acts of the Apostles and these writings, as we have before remarked, reciprocally elucidate and confirm each other; the Christian church from the beginning has attributed them to Paul, without dispute, except the Epistle to the Hebrews; and even those heretics, as the Cerinthians, Ebionites, and Marcionites, who have rejected their divine authority, have never ventured to deny that they were his genuine writings. The Fathers have spoken of some other books which were attributed to the pen of this apostle; as the "Acts of St. Paul," the "Travels of St. Paul and Thecla," an "Epistle to the Laodiceans,” and a third epistle to the Corinthians. These, however, have always been deemed spurious by Macknight's Translation of the Epistles, vol. i. p. 65. the church generally, and destitute of all marks of veracity. Eusebius does not notice them, while he affirms of those which we now possess (excepting that to the Hebrews), that they were universally acknowledged to be the work of St. Paul.* 6. It is almost superfluous to remark, that these epistles are not placed in our Bibles in chronological order, but according to the supposed rank and importance of the communities or churches to whom they were addressed. Hence those which were sent to collective bodies of Christians are placed before those which were sent to private individuals. But we have already assigned the dates and places at which they were severally supposed to have been written. † 7. With regard to Paul's quotations from the Old Testament, it is necessary to observe that they are generally taken from the Septuagint, which was at that time commonly used by the Jews. He sometimes unites many passages together, without distinguishing what is taken from one prophet, and what from another. At other times he gives the sense of a passage without regarding the exact language in which it was originally written. We must discriminate, in the passages which he quotes from the Old Testament, between those that are only allusions and applications, and those mentioned as oracles, and which serve as proofs. Thus, when the apostle applies to justification by faith, what Moses has said respecting the law, "Say not in your hearts, who shall ascend to heaven," &c., it cannot be imagined that this is a prophecy, of which he discovers the profound and concealed sense. It is a mere application of what has been said of the law to the gospel; but a very beautiful and just application. The same may be said of a citation from the nineteenth psalm: "Their words have gone out to the ends of the earth;" which was said of the stars, and is here applied to the ministers of the gospel.|| 8. In noticing the epistles separately, we shall take them in chronological order. SECTION III. EPISTLE TO THE GALATIANS. 1. This epistle is not addressed to a single church, as most of the epistles of Paul are, but to the Hist. Eccles. Lib. iii. c. 25. See page 46, ante. On this subject the reader may consult Michaëlis' Introduction, vol. i., chap. v.; Horne's Introduction, vol. ii., pt. 1, chap. ix., with the authors there referred to; Cook's Inquiry into the Books of the New Testament, chap. v., sect. 12; and Critica Biblica, vol. ii., p. 155, &c. See Townsend's Arrangement of the New Testament, vol. ii. p. 220, and Harwood's Introduction, vol. i., p. 279, &c. Christians of a whole country in Asia Minor. Its date is doubtful; some place it as early as the year 48, and others as low as the year 58. The internal evidence afforded by the epistle itself, as well as the general voice of antiquity, decide, we think, in favour of the early date; or, at least, for a date not later than the year 50 or 51; that is, very shortly after the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. § 2. To understand the design of this epistle, we must notice the state of the church to which it was addressed. 3. It appears, then, from the work itself, that not long after the Galatians had embraced the gospel, to which they had been converted by the personal preaching of Paul, certain Jewish Christians, zealous of the law of Moses, appeared among them, and taught that unless they were circumcised and kept the law, they could not be saved (chap. v. 2); and so successful were they in propagating this error, that some of the Galatians actually submitted to be circumcised. The principal arguments used by the seducers of the Galatians were the following. (1) That the apostles at Jerusalem, especially Peter, and the whole church at Jerusalem, considered circumcision as necessary; and that Paul was only a deputy from that church, his teaching and precepts being authoritative only so far as they agreed with its doctrine. That the former part of this assertion is false, appears both from Acts xv. 24, and from the first two chapters of the epistle; and that the latter part is equally false, appears also from the epistle, where Paul shows at large that he was neither a missionary from the church at Jerusalem, nor a disciple of the apostles, but an immediate apostle of Christ himself; that the gospel which he preached was delivered to him by a divine revelation, and that its truth, therefore, by no means depended on its agreement with what the other apostles taught. It was absolutely necessary that Paul should be explicit on this subject, because Galatia being at some distance from Palestine, the inhabitants of that country could be more easily deceived in respect to the doctrines which were taught by the apostles and elders at Jerusalem. (2) But these false teachers farther asserted "that Paul had altered his opinion, and now preached the Levitical law," chap. i. 8-10, v. 11. Perhaps they pleaded in support of this argument, that he had ordered Timothy to be circumcised § See Michaëlis' Introd. vol. i., p. 8, &c.; Macknight's Preface to this Epistle; and Townsend's Arrangement of New Test. vol. ii., P. 221. shortly before his first visit to the Galatians, Acts | ated on the Thermaic Gulf, and was the metroxvi. 3, comp. with Gal. ii. 3. To these aver- polis of all the countries comprehended in the ments they added, "that all the promises of God province of Macedonia. It was distinguished for were made to the posterity of Abraham; and the number, the wealth, and the learning of its inthat whoever would partake of Abraham's blessing, habitants. Paul visited this city immediately after must, like Abraham, be circumcised." This leaving Philippi, and for three successive sabbath objection Paul answers, chap. iii. 7-iv. 18. days entered into the synagogue, and reasoned with the Jews out of the Scriptures. His labours were not very successful in the conversion of his own countrymen; but of the religious proselytes a great multitude believed, among whom were many women of great distinction, Acts xvii. 4. Among his converts, too, were many idolatrous Gentiles; which so excited the envy of the Jews, that, "moved with indignation," they employed "certain lewd fellows of the baser sort," who set the city in an uproar, assaulted the house of Jason, where the apostle lodged, dragged him and certain brethren before the rulers, and charged them with (3) Lastly, they urged, "that Isaiah had foretold an approaching conversion of the Gentiles, and had promised children to Sion, or Jerusalem, from among the heathen; and that, if the Gentiles desired to be children of Jerusalem, they ought to conform to the worship and ceremonies of that church." In answer to this argument, Paul shows (iv. 19-31) that these children were promised, not to the Jewish, but to the ancient Jerusalem, where the true God was worshipped in the time of Melchisedek, without either temple or Levitical law.* 4. This epistle, therefore, is divisible into three sedition and treason against the Roman emperor. parts. Part I.-A vindication of Paul and his doctrine, showing that he derived his authority from Christ himself, and was in no way inferior to the other apostles (ch. i.); that he preached the same gospel as the other apostles (ch. ii. 1-10); that his practice was consistent with his doctrine (ver. 11-21). Part II-A series of proofs drawn from the Old Testament, that the law had been abolished by Christ. Justification is only to be obtained by faith (ch. iii. 1-5); the nature of the covenant made with Abraham proves this (ver. 6-18); the design of the Mosaic law was not to disannul the promise, but to prepare men for its reception (ver. 19-iv. 8); the Galatians reproved for their defection from the gospel (ver. 9—v. 12). Part III.-Practical inferences deduced from the foregoing discussion. Cautions against abusing the doctrines of grace (ver. 13-15); the works of the flesh and the fruits of the Spirit contrasted (ver. 16-24); directions for the regulation of the Galatians' conduct towards each other (ver. 25vi. 10); the conclusion of the epistle, with Paul's usual benediction (ver. 11–18). SECTION IV. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. The apostle's life being thus placed in danger, Paul 2. With regard to the state of the church at Thessalonica, a knowledge of which is requisite to understand this epistle, we may remark— (1) It consisted chiefly of Gentiles, the teachers mentioned in the fifth chapter (ver. 12) being, probably, converts from Judaism; or at least such 1. THESSALONICA Was a large sea-port town, situ- Greeks as had before been proselytes to the Jewish *Michaelis' Introduct. vol. iv. p. 19, &c. For the purpose of obtaining a clear view of the scope and several parts of the epistles, the reader will do well to consult Macknight's "View and Illustration," &c., prefixed to each chapter, in his Transla tion of the Epistles; or Doddridge's Introduction to the Epistle, in his Family Expositor. religion. (2) The church, being still in its infancy, and oppressed by the powerful Jews, required to be established in the faith. Paul, therefore, in the first three chapters endeavours to convince the Thessalonians of the truth and divinity of his gospel, both by the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit which had been imparted, and by his own conduct when among them. (3) An error prevailed with respect to the doctrine of the last judgment. The Thessalonians, like most of the primitive Christians, thought the day of judgment would happen in their time, and that those who lived to see it take place would have great advantage over the deceased faithful, which was probably to consist in their entering immediately on the millennium. This error is combated in the fourth chapter. (4) Some of the church, who refused to subject themselves to their teachers, had at the same time given themselves up to disorder; which they indulged under the pretence of teaching or edifying others; on this account the apostle gives the admonitions in the fifth chapter, ver. 11-14.* (2) The arguments proposed in this epistle, for proving the divine original of the Christian revelation, are the four following:-(1) That many and great miracles were wrought by the preachers of the gospel, professedly for the purpose of demonstrating that they were commissioned by God to preach it to the world.-(2) That the apostles and their assistants, by preaching the gospel brought upon themselves, everywhere, all manner of present evils, without obtaining the least worldly advantage, either in possession or in prospect: that in preaching this new doctrine, they did not, in any respect, accommodate it to the prevailing inclinations of their hearers, nor encourage them in their vicious practices: that they used none of the base arts peculiar to impostors for gaining belief; but that their manner of preaching and acting was, in all respects, suitable to the character of missionaries from God; so that, on account of their personal character, they were entitled to the highest credit as teachers.-(3) That the first preachers of the gospel delivered to their disciples, from the very beginning, precepts of the greatest strictness and holiness; so that by the sanctity of its precepts, the gospel is shown to be a scheme of religion every way worthy of the true God, and highly beneficial to mankind.--(4) That Jesus, the author of our religion, was declared to be the Son of God, and the Judge of the world, by his resurrection from the dead; and that by the same 3. The epistle is divided into five chapters; viz., the introduction (chap. i. 1); a thanksgiving for the grace received by the Thessalonians (ver. 2— 10); a declaration of the sincerity and love of the apostle and his fellow-labourers (chap. ii. 1—12); the effect produced at Thessalonica by their preaching (ver. 13—16), and their desire, care, and joy, on account of the converts (ver. 17—23, iii. 1— | 13); an exhortation to grow in holiness (chap. iv. 1-8); in brotherly love and industry (ver. 9 12); declarations concerning those that sleep, and those who shall be alive, at the coming of Christ (ver. 13-18); concerning the times (chap. v. 1-miracle, his own promise, and the predictions of 11); sundry exhortations (ver. 19-26); an adjuration for this epistle to be read to all the brethren, and the usual benediction (ver. 27, 28). 4. The importance of the following remarks, from Dr. Macknight's preface to this epistle, will justify their insertion here. (1) In the opinion of the best critics and chronologers, this being one of the first inspired writings which the apostle Paul addressed to the Greeks, whose philosophical genius led them to examine matters of science and opinion with the greatest accuracy, he very properly chose for the subject of it the proofs by which the gospel is shown to be a revelation from God. The reason is, by furnishing a clear and concise view of the evidences of the gospel, he not only confirmed the Thessalonians themselves in the faith thereof, as a revelation from God, but enabled them to persuade others also of its divine original; or, at least, he taught them how to confute their adversaries, who, by misrepresentations and false reasonings, endeavoured to overthrow the gospel. Michaelis' Introduct. vol. iv. p. 23, &c.; Macknight's Preface to this Epistle; and Bishop Percy's Key, p. 94. his apostles concerning his return from heaven, to reward the righteous and punish the wicked, especially them who obey not his gospel, are rendered absolutely certain. (3) In setting forth the proofs of the divine original of the gospel, the apostle with great propriety sisted, in a particular manner, on the character, behaviour, and views of the Christian preachers; because an argument of that kind could not fail to have great weight with the Greeks, as it made them sensible that the ministers of the gospel were the very reverse of their philosophers, the only teachers to whom that intelligent and inquisitive people had hitherto listened. Wherefore we shall not be mistaken, if we suppose that in describing the character, manners, and views of the Christian teachers, the writer of this epistle tacitly contrasted himself, not only with impostors in general, but with the Greek philosophers in particular, who, though in high estimation with the people, were many of them unprincipled impostors, and excessively debauched in their morals. 5. To the arguments offered in this epistle, in proof of the gospel revelation, little can be added, except what arises from the fulfilment of the prophecies of the Old Testament; and therefore the very same arguments have often, since the | those who should then be alive, would find themapostle's days, been urged by those who have undertaken the defence of the Christian religion. But it is proper to remark, that in the mouth of Paul and his assistants these arguments have double weight; for it is not the miracles, the character, and the precepts of other persons which they have appealed to, but their own. And as in this epistle they have affirmed, in the most direct terms, that the Thessalonians were eye-witnesses of the miracles which were wrought for the confirmation of the gospel, and that they knew the sanctity both of the apostles' manners and of their precepts, no doubt can be entertained of these things. For it is not to be supposed, that three men of common understanding would have joined in writing after this manner, to such numerous societies as the Thessalonian church, and the other churches in which they ordered this epistle to be read, unless the things which they affirm to have been done in their presence had really been true. And if they are true, there can be no doubt that Paul and his assistants were commissioned of God; and that the gospel which they preached is of divine original, and of universal obligation. selves quite upon an even footing. In the confident expectation of his own reward, his intermediate dissolution was a matter of so much indifference to him, that he overlooks it. His expression, however, was so strong, that his meaning was mistaken, or, as we have before said, misrepresented. There appears to have been a sect in the apostolic age which looked for the resurrection in their own time. Some of these persons seem to have taken advantage of the apostle's expressions, to represent him as favouring their opinion. To correct this error was his present object; and he therefore peremptorily decides against the doctrine, and desires that no expression of his may be understood as giving it countenance.* SECTION V. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. 1. THE contents of this epistle plainly show it to have been written very soon after the former one. It was written from the same place; and the same brethren-Silvanus and Titus are both mentioned in the introduction. From chap. iii. 2, it seems it was written a little before or a little after the insurrection of the Jews at Corinth, when Paul was dragged before Gallio (Acts xviii. 12), as he there seems either to apprehend or anticipate this violence, or else prays to be delivered from these unbelieving and unreasonable persecutors. We may, therefore, assign it to the year 52. 2. The writing of this epistle appears to have been occasioned by the misrepresentation which some among the Thessalonians had made of certain expressions of the apostle in his former letter. The language which he had adopted in the fourth chapter of that epistle, taken literally, would imply that he included himself in the number of those who should remain alive at the last day. This turn of the expression naturally arose from the strong hold that the expectation of the thing, in its due season, had taken of the writer's imagination, and from his full persuasion of the truth of the doctrine he was asserting-namely, that those who should die before the Lord's coming, and 3. To convince them that such an expectation was unfounded, he assures them, in the most express terms, that before the day of the Lord there will be a great apostasy in the church; that the man of sin will be revealed;† that he will oppose and exalt himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped; and that he will sit, or continue a long time in the church, as God.‡ 4. The epistle consists of three chapters, and contains the inscription (chap. i. 1, 2); thanksgiving and prayer for the Thessalonians (ver. 3-12); the doctrine concerning the man of sin (chap. ii. 1-12); the Thessalonians comforted against this trial (ver. 13, 14); exhortation and prayer (ver. 15-iii. 5); directions to correct the disorderly (ver. 6-16); and the conclusion (ver. 17, 18). SECTION VI. THE EPISTLE TO TITUS. 1. THIS epistle, as Michaëlis observes, might not improperly be called an epistle to the Cretans; for the design of it was not so much to instruct Titus in matters which he must have known without it, as to put into his hands an order, which he might lay before the Cretans, and to which he might appeal whenever unworthy and unqualified persons attempted to intrude into the pastoral office. Its contents are nearly of the same kind as those of the First Epistle to Timothy. The churches of Crete were hitherto without Horsley's Sermons, p. 11. For the fulfilment of this prophecy, see Benson's Dissertation on the Man of Sin; Macknight's Notes on 2 Thess. ii., and the commentators generally. In disproof of the opinion, that the apostles believed the coming of Christ and the day of judgment to be at hand, see Macknight's Preface to this Epistle, sect. iii., iv. ; and Nisbett's |