PIRE bering ab to expe 2 lip, nov f hirty lesirable pat also pro ht the heria 5 he forme out criz ed: "l nly le with s nians with kindness, as he had a more refined and more powerful people Thus the famous battle of Charonéa put an end forever to the re- In B. C. 337 the conquering King of Macedon convened a general congress of the Amphictyonic states at Corinth, from which only the Spartans remained absent. Those who were present made a calculation of the forces which they were able to jointly raise, and it was discovered that an army of two hundred and twenty thousand infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry could be brought into the field by the Grecian republics. With such an available force at their command, they would not have been obliged to submit to the yoke of a half-civilized despot, had they been sufficiently united in the cause of Grecian freedom. Ambitious Philip's motives for assembling this general Grecian congress at Philip's Corinth were of the same ambitious character as those which had previously directed all his actions. He had from the beginning aimed at Designs. universal dominion, and had always considered the conquest of Greece as only a step to the conquest of Asia, which he very well knew could only be accomplished by the friendship and aid of the Grecian states. These ulterior designs undoubtedly afforded a sufficient reason for the leniency with which he treated the Grecian republics after his decisive victory at Chæronéa, and for his allowing them to retain their old Philip, Generalis simo. democratic institutions and their nominal independence. The Macedonian king found a sufficient pretext for asking the aid of the assembled states at Corinth, in the cruel oppression which the Greek colonies of Asia Minor had endured from the Persian government, as administered by its appointed satraps; and he urged upon the Greeks to retaliate upon the Persians for the invasions of Greece in the times of Darius Hystaspes and Xerxes. The Grecian congress at Corinth entered into Philip's designs with apparent readiness, and named him generalissimo of the Græco-Macedonian armies, while the din of military preparations again resounded throughout Greece. The king was prevented from immediately entering on his Eastern expedition by disturbances in Illyria and domestic dissensions in Macedon. Alexander quarreled with his father for mistreating his mother Olympias, and ultimately, in a moment of irritation, threw himself into the arms of the dissatisfied Illyrians. The Illyrian king attacked and subdued the Illyrians, and, by the employment of all his art, finally succeeded in soothing Alexander, and winning back his loyalty. Revolt. Assassi- The transactions just related occupied so much time that Philip's nation of Philip of career and life were ended before he had an opportunity to prosecute Macedon. his schemes of Asiatic conquest. In B. C. 336-two years after his subjugation of Greece by his victory at Charonéa-Philip of Macedon was assassinated by Pausanias, a Macedonian nobleman. Some asserted that the assassin was bribed to this deed by the Persians; but there is good reason for believing that Alexander only put forth this imputation to justify his invasion of the dominions of the Great King, or to clear himself and his mother Olympias from the suspicion which was entertained by very many that they were accessories to the crime. Aristotle, who was present at Pella at the time, attributed the deed to motives of private revenge on the part of Pausanias, who was seized and put to death immediately after he had committed the act. may well be supposed, the republican Greeks, and especially the Athenians, rejoiced at the death of the man who had subverted the liberties of their country. His and Un Philip's character has been differently estimated by historians. Abilities His contemporaries and posterity, friends and foes, have all acknowlscrupu- edged the greatness of his abilities; but the motives by which he was lousness. actuated have been viewed in extremely-opposite lights. No one who views his career impartially can doubt that he was ambitious of power and dominion, and unscrupulous as to the means of acquiring these. He began his career as the sovereign of a poor and unimportant kingdom, but, by the force of his own talents, he had made himself the virtual ruler of a hundred principalities before his death. P He obtained his extended dominion by the force of arms when the occasion required it, but his most potent instrument was his artful policy. In all the annals of history, no prince ever carried the arts of diplomatic intrigue to the same degree as did King Philip II. of Macedon; and though we must not forget that the contemporary writers who delineated his character were his avowed and inveterate enemies, there is little reason for believing that they have misrepresented him in ascribing bribery as at the foundation of his entire policy. His first step, on all occasions when he desired to subject any community to his influence or his dominion, was to discover and win over to his side its factious and dissatisfied citizens and leaders, who, if unable to accomplish his ends for him by secret intrigue, might, at any rate, injure and check the efforts of his antagonists in the same community, and make an open military conquest much more easy. His Dip lomatic Intrigue. His Occasional Though Philip was unscrupulous in the use of the basest instruments to assist him in his acquisition of power and dominion, he exhibited, in numerous instances, sufficient mental greatness to use the erosity. and i power which he thus acquired with nobleness and generosity. His treatment of the Athenians after the battle of Charonéa was magnani- Historians have recorded other sayings of his, of a like character, The combination of good and evil elements in Philip's character is yet more forcibly exemplified by his conduct in other capacities than those of the warrior and the statesman. Though almost constantly occupied in the bustle of war and politics, he had a love for polite learning and for all those studies which refine and adorn human nature. This feature of his character is fully shown by his letter to Aristotle on the birth of Alexander; and we have additional evidence of it in his constant anxiety to attract to his court all who were renowned throughout Greece for learning and literary ability. He personally corresponded with various celebrated philosophers of the Grecian schools, and his letters are reputed to have been remarkable for their elegance and good sense. He was usually kind and generous to his friends to the highest degree, and he administered justice to his subjects in a paternal and impartial manner. A vice by which Philip frequently, if not habitually, disgraced himself was his excessive indulgence in wine; and it is said that when, on Gen His Ambition. His Love of Learning. His Intemper ance. one occasion, while intoxicated, he had given judgment against an old woman, in a case brought before him, she exclaimed: "I appeal from Philip drunk to Philip sober." He also disturbed the domestic peace of his family by his unfaithfulness toward his wife, Olympias. Alexan cession. SECTION II.-CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. THE condition of Greece at the time of the assassination of Philip der's Ac of Macedon is sufficiently clear from the circumstances attending the general congress of the Grecian states at Corinth, where every Amphictyonic state, excepting Sparta, virtually acknowledged, through its representatives, the supremacy of Macedon. Philip's views in convening that congress were fully shared by his son Alexander, who prepared to carry them into effect as soon as he had ascended his father's throne. Before he became securely seated on the Macedonian throne, Alexander encountered some little opposition from his first cousin, the son of Philip's brother; but the young king soon overcame this opposition. His qualifications rendered it extremely difficult for any pretender to dispute his claims. Alexander was calculated to win his way to a throne amid a multitude of rival competitors, as he was in the flower of youth, possessed of a handsome and active though slight person, and also of a countenance full of manly beauty, and winning manners, and as he was already famed for his military skill and his chival-i rous valor. Alexander was only twenty years of age when he ascended his father's throne. His Cele- alus. Alexan der, Generalis simo. Frequent allusion is made to a remarkable instance of his extraordinary readiness of judgment. One day a fiery horse was brought out before Philip and his courtiers, when it was discovered to be impossible for any one to mount the beast, until Alexander came forward and easily accomplished the task, after he had discovered that the direct cause of it being unmanageable was that its head was turned to the sun. This royal youth was the only one present who had sufficient penetration to perceive this. This animal became the celebrated war-horse which carried Alexander through many of his campaigns, and was named Bucéphalus. This remarkable quickness of intellect had all the advantages of culture through the care of Aristotle. The young king first devoted himself to measures for the preservation of the Macedonian ascendency in Grecian affairs. He made a journey to Corinth for this purpose, and received the submission of the states of Thessaly on his route thither. When he reached Corinth he convened the deputies of the Amphictyonic republics, took his seat among them as an Amphictyon, and easily obtained from them his |