ADORATION; originally, the expression of the highest respect either to God or man; now used, more particularly, for the act of religious homage. The word literally signifies applying the hand to the mouth; manum ad os admovere, i. e. to kiss the hand. The word kissing is the usual idiom of the Hebrew language to signify adoration. Herodotus considers the custom of kissing the hand in adoration to have been adopted by the Greeks from the Persians. It certainly prevailed at an early period all over the East. The Roman ceremony of adoration has been thus described: the devotee, having his head covered, applied his right hand to his lips, the fore finger resting on his thumb, which was erect, and, thus bowing his head, turned himself round from left to right. The kiss given was called osculum labratum. Sometimes, however, they kissed the feet or even the knees of their gods. The Grecians generally worshipped uncovered. During their prayers, their hands were raised above their heads with the palms turned towards heaven or the statues of their god; a custom still often seen, in Catholic countries, accompanying fervent prayer; but generally the Christians clasp their hands during prayer, which is still the custom in Europe, both among Catholics and Protestants. The first Christians often turned the face towards the east when they prayed. The Mahometans turn the face towards Mecca. Prostration, accompanied sometimes by kissing the ground, is an ancient mode of adoring the gods, and expressing the highest respect for men. În Russia and Poland, it is still the custom for people of the lower classes to kneel down and kiss the garment of the person to whom they wish to show respect. Diocletian offered his foot to be kissed by the courtiers, and even under Charlemagne and his son, the noblemen kissed the emperor's foot. Probably, therefore, the popes took this custom from the emperors, to whose power they laid claim in succeeding to their title of sovereign pontiff. They have an embroidered cross on the slipper of their right foot, which is kissed by the Catholics. When the late king of Spain was in Rome, he prostrated himself before the pontiff, and kissed the cross on his foot. There is no doubt that the Roman emperors borrowed this custom from the East. In the primitive Christian church, this honor is said to have been shown to every bishop, as it often is still in the Greek church. In kissing the bishop's

foot, the words Qоoxvv☎ σ were, and still are used. The Jews, being an Asiatic tribe, often prostrated themselves in the act of worship. (See Joshua, Judges, 1 Chron., Ezekiel, &c.) Taking off the shoes or slippers during adoration is an old custom in Asia. It is also practised on common occasions as an act of politeness. The Oriental takes off his shoes before he enters the temple, the mosque, or the apartment of a man of respectability. This custom was also adopted by the Roman Catholic church in some cases. At the adoration of the cross on Good Friday, the Roman Catholics walk barefooted; and the ceremony of humiliation, when the pope and all the cardinals approach the cross bare-footed, in the Cappella Sistina, cannot but make a deep impression on every traveller. Kneeling was in all ages a common posture of adoration, and originates from the feeling of humility in addressing a higher and mightier being. Sitting with the thighs resting on the heels, was an ancient Egyptian attitude in the act of worship. There are many statues represented in this position. Standing with the body inclined forward, the eyes fixed on the ground, the hands probably resting on the knees, was an early eastern attitude of adoration. Dancing, screaming, rolling on the ground, and many similar acts accompany the worship of different savage tribes. Mr. Ward, one of the Baptist missionaries at Serampore, in a work on the history and literature of the Hindoos, has given a very curious and minute account of the modes of adoration, which they call pooja. The objects of adoration have been greatly diversified. In all ages, worship has been paid to idols, but many of the worshippers have regarded the image merely as the representative of the Divinity. Protestants often mistake when they impute to Catholics, universally, the worship of external things, as being in themselves objects of adoration, while, in fact, they are regarded by the church merely as visible signs of the invisible Deity. The ancients placed crowns or garlands on the statues of the gods; and the Catholics still offer flowers to their saints and the virgin. It was common to sleep in the ancient temples, with a view of receiving responses from the gods in dreams. The sick, in particular, slept for this purpose in the temple of Esculapius. In the Roman Catholic church adoration is not offered to saints and martyrs, as has been supposed, but their intercession is solicited." The

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Phoenicians (the first navigators) adored the winds, a practice adopted by many other nations. The Persians adored the sun and fire. The Greeks and Romans adored fire under the name of Vesta. Pliny mentions the adoration of lightning by gently clapping the hands. The Egyptians adored animals, plants and fishes; the Arabs, stones; the Scythians, swords; the Chinese, the statues of their ancestors. The Hindoos have not only an amazing variety of gods, but they worship human beings, beasts, birds, trees, rivers, fish, books and stones. (See Ward's View of the History, Literature and Religion of the Hindoos, and Bishop Heber's Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta to Bombay, 1824-1825, with Notes upon Ceylon, and an Account of a Journey to Madras and the Southern Provinces, 1826.) It must be remembered, that all adoration originates from two different sources, either from love and thankfulness, or from fear.

ADRAGANTH, in medicine, gum dragon. It distils by incision from the trunk or roots of a plant which grows in the Levant. The gum is of different colors, white, red, gray and black, and is useful in medicine. Skinners use great quantities, and prefer the red to the black. It is the astragalus tragacanthus of Linnæus. ADRASTEA; a daughter of Jupiter and Necessity, the servant of eternal Justice, the punisher of all injustice, whom no mortal escapes. A. is generally a mere epithet, given to Nemesis, (q. v.) She is represented sometimes with wings, sometimes with a rudder, and sometimes with a wheel.

ADRASTUS, king of Argos; son of Talaus and Eurynome. In obedience to the oracle which commanded him to give one of his daughters to a lion and the other to a wild boar, he gave Argia to Polynices, who came to him in a lion's skin, and Deiphyle to Tydeus, who was dressed in the skin of a wild boar. He was one of the seven heroes who encamped before Thebes, and the only one who survived the siege. Ten years after this, he made a second expedition against Thebes, accompanied by the sons of his former allies, and took the city, but lost his son in the engagement, and died himself of grief. (See Thebes.)

ADRIAN, the African, abbot of St. Peter's, Canterbury, in the 7th century, accompanied Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, to England. A. was the preceptor of Adhelm, and Bede extols the hap

py time when the island enjoyed his tuition, and Kent "was the fountain of knowledge to the rest of England."

ADRIAN, OF HADRIAN, Publius Ælius, a Roman emperor, the successor of Trajan, was born at Rome, A. D. 76. His father, Trajan's cousin, died when A. was ten years of age. A. showed very early great talents, and is said to have spoken the Greek language so perfectly in his 15th year, that he was called the young Greek. His memory is said to have been so extraordinary, that he could commit a book to memory by once perusing it, and that he could call all his soldiers by name. These stories may be exaggerated, but they prove the estimation in which his talents were held. He was an orator, poet, grammarian, mathematician, physician, painter, musician and astrologer. The greater developement of the sciences in modern times does not admit of distinction in so many branches. His great qualities, however, were stained by great faults, so that he never won the affections of Trajan, who was his guardian. He was indebted for his elevation to the throne to the wife of Trajan, Plotina, who concealed the death of her husband until she had time to forge a testament bearing the name of the late emperor, in which he was made to adopt A. and declare him his successor. Her bribes also had in the mean time prepared the troops to espouse the cause of A. After these preparations had been made, A. sent information of the emperor's death from Antioch to Rome, pretended that the imperial dignity had been forced upon him, promised the senate that he would discharge faithfully the duties of his station, and assured the pretorian guards that they should receive twice the usual present. A.D. 117, he ascended the imperial throne, appeared in Rome, and strove at first to win the favor of the people by the mildness of his administration. It was not long, however, before he manifested a cowardly and suspicious character, together with too great a devotion to pleasure. Among other things, he purchased peace from the Sarmatians and Roxolani, who had attacked Illyria, by the payment of a tribute. From A. D. 120 to 131, he made his famous journey on foot, and with his head uncovered, through all the provinces of his empire. In Egypt, he lost his favorite Antinous (q. v.), whose death he lamented long and bitterly. During his stay of two years in Athens, he established a colony of Roman soldiers on the site of the ruined Jerusalem;

and on the spot where the temple of Solomon had stood, he erected a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus. Upon this, a dreadful insurrection broke out among the Jews, which lasted two years and a half. He embellished Athens with buildings, and finished the temple of the Olympian Jupiter, begun 560 years before. A. died at Baja, 138 A. D. in the 63d year of his age, and the 21st of his reign. He had good qualities and great faults. He promoted literature and the arts, did many good things on his journey, established the edictum perpetuum, enacted laws against dissipation and the cruelties of the slave trade, prohibited human sacrifices, forbade the indiscriminate bathing of men and women, &c. Antoninus Pius succeeded him. It was with much difficulty that his successor could obtain a decree from the senate, granting him, according to usage, divine honors. A. wrote several books; among others a history of his own life, under the name of Phlegon, one of his freedmen, which is no longer extant. He composed, not long before he breathed his last, the following lines:

Animula, vagula, blandula,
Hospes, comesque corporis,
Quæ nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula?
Nec, ut soles, dabis jocos.

Pope has imitated them.

ADRIAN. There have been six popes of this name. The first, a Roman, ruled from 772 to 795, was a cotemporary and friend of Charlemagne, who, on account of A.'s able defence of his claims to the crown of France, protected him with his army, 774, against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, confirmed the donation of Pepin to the territory of the church, and made further grants himself. The pope was not allowed, however, to enjoy in peace the gifts of Charlemagne till 787, after the termination of the frequent campaigns of this king against the Italian princes, who claimed the territory. By confirming the decrees of the council of Nice, 786, in favor of the worship of images, A. gave offence to Charlemagne, who was opposed to the practice, and procured a repeal of the decree at the council of Frankfort. The repeal was resisted by A.; but he so carefully and skilfully avoided offending the king, that he remained his friend, and honored him after his death, 795, with an inscription, yet preserved in the Vatican. Though by no means a profound theologian, A. obtained

great influence by the correctness of his conduct, and his decision of character. By a prudent use of this influence, he greatly increased his power.-ADRIAN II, a Roman, was elected pope in 867, at the age of 75 years. He was esteemed for his virtues, and famous on account of his bold opposition to the divorce of Lothaire, king of Lotharingia, from his wife Thietberga. By interfering in the dispute, which arose after the death of Lothaire, between Charles the Bald and the emperor Louis, respecting the right of succession, he made the former his enemy. He had another dispute in France, where bishop Hincmar of Laon had been dismissed against his will; he likewise excommunicated the patriarch Photius of Constantinople, on account of his spiritual jurisdiction over Bulgaria, which diminished the authority of the pope, since the Greek church maintained its independence against him, and made Bulgaria dependent on itself. He died 872, in the midst of his conflicts with this church.-ADRIAN III, a Roman, elected 884, was pope for 1 year and 4 months only. He was opposed to the influence of the emperors on the election of the pope, and determined, if Charles the Fat should die without heir, to give Italy a new king.-ADRIAN IV, an Englishman, originally named Nicholas Breakspear, rose, by his great talents, from the situation of a poor monk to the rank of cardinal, and legate in the north, where he established at Drontheim the first Norwegian archbishopric, and a second at Upsal. He was elected pope in 1154, and waged an unsuccessful war against William, king of Sicily, who, at the peace of 1156, claimed the privilege, still existing in the monarchia Sicilia, so called, that, in matters relating to the church, nothing should be done by the pope without the consent of the king. The emperor Frederic I, who, before, had held his stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome, June 18, 1155, was opposed to this peace with William, his enemy. A. increased his resentment by the haughty language of his letters, and instigated the Lombards against him. Frederic, on the other hand, acted in ecclesiastical matters as if there had been no pope. Before these difficulties came to a close, A. died, Sept. 1, 1159, at Anagni. The permission which he gave to Henry II, king of England, to invade Ireland, on the condition that every family of that island should pay annually a penny to the papal chair, because all islands belong to the

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pope, is worthy of remark. On this grant the subsequent popes founded their claims on Ireland.-ADRIAN V, previously called Ottoboni da Fiesco, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the pope, the dispute between king Henry III of England and his nobles, in favor of the former; but died soon after his election to the papal chair, 1276.-ADRIAN VI, son of a mechanic of Utrecht, and professor in Louvain, was, in 1507, appointed tutor of the emperor Charles V. When ambassador of the emperor Maximilian, in 1515, he persuaded Ferdinand the Catholic to nominate young Charles his successor to the Spanish throne; after which he became, in 1516, bishop of Tortosa and regent of Spain, and, in 1517, cardinal. The Spaniards were not pleased with his severe and often partial government, and expressed great joy when, at the suggestion of Charles V, he was elected to the papal chair, in 1522. He was not less hated at Rome, on account of his antipathy to classical literature, and his honest endeavors to reform the papal court, to abolish the prevailing luxury, bribery, and other abuses; but his efforts were frustrated by the cardinals, and, if they had been successful, could not have prevented the progress of the reformation already begun in Germany. A. opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him; but his abilities were not equal to the existing emergency. His measures against France also were unsuccessful. Notwithstanding his honest efforts and upright character, he died unlamented, in 1525, after a reign of one year and a half. His reign was, according to his own confession, the most unhappy period of his life. On his tomb, in the church of St. Peter, is the following epitaph:

Adrianus Papa VI hic situs est,
Qui nihil sibi infelicius
In vita,

Quam quod imperaret,
Duxit.

ADRIANOPLE (in Turkish, Edrene), the second capital and residence of the Ottoman rulers, is situated in ancient Thrace (now Rumelia), on the banks of the navigable river Hebrus (now Maritza). On this spot a small town formerly stood, inhabited by the Bessi, a Thracian tribe. The emperor Adrian founded this city on the left bank of the Hebrus, called it after his own name, and made it the capital of the province of mt. Hæmus. From the range of hills on which it is situated,

it commands a beautiful prospect over a large and fertile plain, divided by two ranges of hills, between which the river runs. It was fortified, and resisted, in the 4th century, the violent attack of the victorious Goths, who were, however, ignorant of the mode of conducting a regular siege. To give it the appearance of a Greek origin, the writers of Byzantium called it Orestea or Orestias. According to their accounts, it is five days' journey distant from Constantinople. In 1360, it was taken by Amurath, the Turkish sultan; and from that time it continued to be the residence of the Turkish emperors for nearly a century, until the conquest of Constantinople. The number of the houses is 16,000, and that of the inhabitants 100,000, among whom there are 30,000 Greeks, under an archbishop. It contains also an imperial palace, 40 mosques, of which that of Selim II and of Amurath II are the most magnificent, 22 bathing establishments, with beautiful aqueducts, important manufactures, and exports, among other articles, oil of roses, which is made in its vicinity, of the best kind.

ADRIAN'S WALL; a celebrated Roman work in the north of England. This work, though called by the Roman his torians murus, which signifies a wall of stone, was only composed of earth covered with green turf. It was carried from the Solway frith, in as direct a line as possible, to the river Tyne, on the east, at the place where the town of Newcastle now stands; so that it must have been above 60 English and nearly 70 Roman miles in length. It consisted of four parts: 1, the principal agger, mound of earth or rampart, on the brink of the ditch; 2, the ditch, on the north side of the rampart; 3, another rampart on the south side of the principal one, about five paces distant from it; 4, a large rampart on the north side of the ditch. For many ages, this work has been in so ruinous a condition, that it is impossible to discover its original dimensions with certainty. But from their appearance, it seems probable that the principal rampart was at least ten or twelve feet high, and the south one not much less; the northern one was considerably lower. The ditch, taken as it passes through a lime-stone quarry near Harlow hill, appears to have been 9 feet deep and 11 feet wide at the top. The north rampart was about twenty feet distant from the ditch.

ADRIATIC SEA (mare Adriaticum. Adri

anum), now more commonly called gulf of Venice, though in Italian, German and French the old name continues, is an arm of the Mediterranean included by the coasts of Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, Albania and Epirus, about 200 leagues long and 50 broad, extending from south-east to north-west, lat. 40° to 50° 55′ north. It contains about 90,000 sq. miles of surface. Different derivations of the name are given. On the Austrian coast it has a number of small islands, and forms many bays, the most remarkable of which are those of Trieste, Quarnaro and Cattaro. It is called the gulf of Venice from the city of this name, which formerly claimed exclusive dominion over this sea, and in those times annually wedded it on Ascension Day. The ceremony was performed by the doge of Venice throwing a ring into the sea with great pomp. The entrance of the gulf is commanded by Corfu, one of the Ionian islands under the British government. The coast of the A. sea is, in many places, very dangerous. The most important ports on the gulf are Venice (since 1829 a free port), Trieste, Ancona, Otranto, &c.

ADULE; ADULIAN MARBLE. Adule, a city in Ethiopia, mentioned by ancient authors as the most important commercial place of the Troglodytes and Ethiopians, in later times the emporium of Axum, seems to be the same with the modern Arkiko. This city, now the residence of the Naib of Massuah, is frequently mentioned on account of an inscription, first copied in the Topographia Christiana, a work partly theological, partly geographical, written by Cosmas Indicopleustes, in the 6th century, under the reign of the emperor Justin. The inscription, engraved on marble, is contained in part on a throne, the remainder on a stone separated from it, and there are many inconsistencies in the several fragments, which have induced some scholars to declare the inscription spurious. Besides the genealogy of Ptolemy Euergetes, it contains on a second part, which Salt supposes to be of Axumitic, that is, of Ethiopic or Abyssinian origin, the catalogue of nations whom some king boasts to have subdued. Buttmann (in Wolf's Museum der Alterthumskunde, vol. 2, p. 105) has removed the difficulties arising from the date on the marble, which is the 27th year of the reign of a king, whose name is unknown, probably not Ptolemy Euergetes. Several things, however, remain to be explained, and require a more accurate knowledge than we have at pres

ent of the country where the inscription was found.

ADULTERY. Mankind, in almost all ages, and in all civilized countries, have regarded the violation of the marriage-bed with abhorrence. It has been punished in various ways and with different degrees of severity, according to the general manners and morals of the country; sometimes with extreme and even cruel rigor; in other instances, with capricious and ridiculous penalties. By the Jewish law, it was punished with death. Strabo says the same was the case in Arabia Felix. Among the ancient Egyptians, it was not common, but when it did occur, a thousand lashes were inflicted on the man, and the woman was deprived of her nose. In Greece, the laws against it were severe. The rich were sometimes allowed to redeem themselves by paying a fine; in which case, the woman's father returned the dower which he had received from the husband. Some suppose it was refunded by the adulterer. A frequent punishment there, was putting out the eyes. According to Homer, adulterers were stoned to death. By the laws of Draco and Solon, adulterers, when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. Adulteresses were prohibited, in Greece, from appearing in fine garments and entering the temples. Some suppose that this offence was made capital by a law of Romulus, and again by the twelve tables; others, that it was first made capital by Augustus; and others, not till the reign of Constantine. The fact is, that the punishment was left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The most usual mode of taking revenge was by mutilating, castrating, or cutting off the ears or nose. The punishment assigned by the lex Julia de adulteris, instituted by Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. It was decreed by Antoninus, that, to sustain a charge of adultery against a wife, the husband who brought it must be innocent himself. Under Macrinus, adulterers were burned at a stake. Under Constantius and Constans, they were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea. But the punishment was mitigated under Leo and Marcian to perpetual banishment, or cutting off the nose; and under Justinian the wife was only to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration of two years, the husband might take her again; if he refused, she was shaven, and made a nun for life. Theodosius instituted the