state, now subject to Congo. The principal towns are Batta, Cangon and Agysimba.

BATTALION; a division of infantry, commonly 600-800 men strong, in the armies of the European continent. The battalion forms an independent body, under the orders of a staff-officer, commonly a major; has its own standard, a musical band, and consists not, like the regiments, of unequal companies, but of equal divisions. Therefore the strength of infantry is always given in battalions. In the English army, the strength of a battalion varies from 600 to 1000, or even 1200 men. Each of their battalions consists of four divisions, each division of two subdivisions, which are again divided into sections. Each regiment of Napoleon's army had a battalion of light troops, volligeurs. This is also the case in the Prussian army, where they are called Fuseliere. Battalions form the most convenient and manageable columns; and the columns of battalions are those which most frequently occur in modern battles. Squares of companies are only formed in cases of urgent necessity, and columns of regiments form very heavy and awkward bodies.

BATTERING RAM. The ancients employed two different machines of this kind-the one suspended, and vibrating after the manner of a pendulum, and the other movable, on rollers. These were denominated the swinging and rolling ram, and, when worked under a cover or shed, to protect the assailants, they were denominated tortoise rams, from the shed being assimilated to a tortoise-shell. The swinging ram resembled, in magnitude and form, the mast of a large vessel, suspended horizontally at its centre of gravity, by chains or cords, from a movable frame. Ligatures of waxed cord surrounded the beam at short intervals, and cords at the extremity, opposite to the head, served for the purpose of applying human force to give the oscillatory motion. Other cords, at intermediate distances, were also sometimes employed. The rolling ram was much the same as the above in its general construction, except that, instead of a pendulous motion, it received only a motion of simple alternation, produced by the strength of men applied to cords passing over pulleys. This construction seems to have been first employed at the siege of Byzantium. These machines were often extremely ponderous. Appian declares that, at the siege of Carthage, he saw two rams

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so colossal that 100 men were employed in working each. Vitruvius affirms that the beam was often from 100 to 120 feet in length; and Justus Lipsius describes some as 180 feet long, and two feet four inches in diameter, with an iron head weighing at least a ton and a half. In contrasting the effects of the battering ram with those of the modern artillery, we must not judge of them merely by the measure of their respective momenta. Such a ram as one of those described by Lipsius would weigh more than 45,000 lbs., and its momentum, supposing its velocity be about two yards per second, would be nearly quadruple the momentum of a 40 lb. ball moving with a velocity of 1600 feet per second. But the operation of the two upon a wall would be very different. The ball would penetrate the opposing substance, and pursue its way almost undisturbed; but the efficacy of the ram would depend almost entirely upon duly apportioning its intervals of oscillation. At first, it would produce no obvious effect upon the wall; but the judicious repetition of its blows would, in a short time, give motion to the wall itself. First, there would be a just perceptible tremor, then more extensive vibrations; these being evident, the assailants would adjust the oscillations of the ram to that of the wall, till, at length, a large portion of it, partaking of the vibratory impulse, would, by a well-timed blow, fall to the earth at once. This recorded effect of the ram has nothing analogous in the results of modern machinery.

BATTERY, in the military art; 1. any raised place in which cannon are planted; 2. all the lines of a fortress, behind the parapets of which are cannon. They are erected in the open field, in citadels, on a lake or the sea, before a place which is to be besieged, &c. With regard to the kind of artillery, they are distinguished into cannon, howitzer, mortar, &c. With regard to their object, they are divided into breach batteries, used to attack the faces or salient angles of the bastion or ravelin, in order to make an accessible breach; batteries en echarpe, or oblique batteries, which are erected beside the breach batteries, under an angle of 20-30 degrees, in order to batter a breach obliquely; ricochet batteries, which command the enemy's lines, so that the balls roll along the whole length of the rampart, and render it insecure, &c. Their position is perpendicular to the line which is to be enfiladed. Mortar batteries have the parapets inwards, and no embrasures.

In respect to their position, they are divided into horizontal, raised and sunk batteries. The disposition of floating batteries may be various. Such a battery commonly consists of a raft, in the middle line of which cannon are placed, having before them breastworks made of bags of wool. The raft is fastened, by a strong cable, to a beam or anchor, round which it is to be moved, and brought, by the aid of oars or rudders, to the proper place. (For an account of the floating batteries invented by d'Arçon, which were used, in 1782, against Gibraltar, see Elliot.)-In experimental physics, battery is a combination of several jars or metallic plates, to increase the effect of electricity and galvanism. (See Leyden Jar, and Galvanism.)

BATTERY. (See Assault.)

BATTEUX, Charles; honorary canon of Rheims, born, May 7, 1713, at Allend'huy, a village near Rheims. He displayed his gratitude to this city, in which he received his education, by the ode In Civitatem Remensem, 1739, which was much admired. In 1750, he was invited to Paris, where he taught rhetoric in the colleges of Lisieux and Navarre. He was afterwards appointed professor of Latin and Greek philosophy at the royal college. In 1754, he became a member of the academy of inscriptions, and, in 1761, of the French academy. His constitution, naturally strong, sunk under his exertions, and he died July 14, 1780. His eulogy was pronounced by M. Delille, then director of this society. B. left a large number of valuable works. He has done much service to literature and the fine arts, by introducing unity and system into the numerous canons of taste, which had gained a standing among the French by the example of many eminent men, particularly in regard to poetry, and must be regarded as a valuable writer on aesthetics, notwithstanding the higher point of view from which this science is now considered. Some of his most valuable works are Les Beaux-Arts réduits à un même Principe, Paris, 1747; and Cours de BellesLettres ou Principes de la Littérature, Paris, 1774, and several times afterwards. These works have been translated into many other languages. (See Philosophy.)

BATTLE. The object of a war may be obtained in two different ways: either one party forces the enemy, by skilful manœuvres, marches, demonstrations, the occupation of advantageous positions, &c., to quit the field (which belongs to the province of strategy); or the hostile

masses approach each other (by design or by chance), so that a battle becomes necessary to determine which shall keep the field. The rules for insuring a successful issue, whether they respect the preparations for the conflict, or the direction of the forces when actually engaged, belong to tactics, in the narrower sense of the word. Strategy also shows the causes which bring armies together, and produce battles without any agreement between the parties. It belongs not to this article to explain this point. It may be sufficient to say, in general, that armies, in their marches (and consequently in their meeting), are chiefly determined by the course of the mountains and rivers of a country. In ancient times and the middle ages, the battle-ground was often chosen by agreement, and then the battle was a mere trial of strength, a duel en gros; but, in our time, such trifling is done away. War is now carried on for the real or pretended interest of a nation, or a ruler who thinks or pretends that his interest is that of the nation. Wars are not undertaken for the purpose of fighting, and battles are merely the consequence of pursuing the purpose of the war. They arise from one party's striving to prevent the other from gaining his object. Every means, therefore, of winning the battle is resorted to, and an agreement can hardly be thought of. In this respect, a land battle is entirely different from a naval battle. The former is intended merely to remove an obstacle in the way of gaining the object of the war; the destruction of the enemy, therefore, is not the first thing sought for. The views of one party can often be carried into effect with very little effusion of blood; and if a general can obtain the same end by manoeuvring as by a battle, he certainly prefers the former. But the object of a naval engagement is, almost always, the destruction of the enemy; those cases only excepted, in which a fleet intends to bring supplies or reënforcements to a blockaded port, and is obliged to fight to accomplish its purpose.-As the armies of the ancients were not so well organized as those of the moderns, and the combatants fought very little at a distance, after the battle had begun, manœuvres were much more difficult, and troops, when actually engaged, were almost entirely beyond the control of the general. With them, therefore, the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous arrangements, and the valor of the troops. Not so in modern times.

The

finest combinations, the most ingenious manœuvres, are rendered possible by the better organization of the armies, which thus, generally at least, remain under the control of the general. The battle of the ancients was the rude beginning of an art now much developed. It is the skill of the general, rather than the courage of the soldier, that now determines the event of a battle. There is, probably, no situation, which requires the simultaneous exertion of all the powers of the mind more than that of a general at the decisive moment of a battle. While the soldier can yield himself entirely to the impulse of his courage, the general must coolly calculate the most various combinations; while the soldier retreats, the general must endeavor to turn the tide of battle by his ardor or his genius. Daring courage, undaunted firmness, the most active and ingenious invention, cool calculation and thorough self-possession, amid scenes of tremendous agitation, and under the consciousness that the fate of a whole nation may depend on him alone in the trying moment,-these are the qualities which a good general cannot dispense with for a moment. If it is the character of genius to conceive great ideas instantaneously, military genius is, in this respect, the greatest. Great generals have therefore been, in all ages, the objects of admiration; and as a great artist may be no example, in a moral point of view, although we admire the genius displayed in his productions, so we cannot but bestow the same kind of admiration on the high intellectual gifts of a great general. Few situations, therefore, enable a man to acquire higher glory, than that of a great commander in a good cause.-If troops meet accidentally, and are thus obliged to fight, it is called a rencontre. Further, battles are distinguished into offensive and defensive. Of course, a battle which is offensive for one side is defensive for the other. Tacticians divide a battle into three periods that of the disposition, that of the combat, and the decisive moment. The general examines the strength, reconnoitres the position, and endeavors to learn the intention of the enemy. If the enemy conceals his plan and position, skirmishes and partial assaults are often advisable, in order to disturb him, to obtain a view of his movements, to induce him to advance, or with the view of making prisoners, who may be questioned, &c. Since the general cannot direct all these operations in person, officers of the

staff and aids assist him; single scouts or small bodies are sent out, and spies are employed. Any person or thing (ministers, peasants, shepherds, maps, &c.), which can afford information of the enemy, or the ground on which the battle is likely to take place, is made use of for obtaining intelligence, by force or otherwise. According to the knowledge thus acquired, and the state of the troops, the plan of the battle, or the disposition, is made; and here military genius has an opportunity to display itself. There is an immense difference between the quick, clear and ingenious disposition of a great general, which shows the leading features of the plan to every commander under him, and provides for all cases, favorable or unfavorable, with a few distinct touches, without depriving the different commanders of freedom of action, and the slow, indistinct, minute, and, after all, inaccurate dispositions of a feeble commander. Napoleon's dispositions are real masterpieces. Like a great artist, he delineates, with a few strokes, the whole character of the battle; and as the disciples of Raphael assisted in the painting of his pictures, but necessarily worked in the great style of their master, which his first lines gave to the picture, so all the skilful generals under Napoleon labored for the accomplishment of one great end, sometimes disclosed to them, sometimes concealed in the breast of the commander. To the disposition also belongs the detaching of large bodies which are to cooperate in the battle, but not under the immediate command of the chief. The plan of the battle itself, the position of the troops, &c., is called the order of battle (ordre de bataille). This is either the parallel, or the enclosing (if the enemy cannot deyelope his forces, or you are strong enough to outflank him), or the oblique. (See Attack.)* When each division of troops has taken its position, and received its orders, and the weaker points have been fortified (if time allows it), the artillery placed on the most favorable points, all chasms connected by bridges; villages, woods, &c., taken possession of, and all impediments removed as far as possible (which very often cannot be done, except by fighting), then comes the second period-that of the engagement. The combat begins, either on several points at a given signal, as is the case when the armies are very large, and a general attack is

* On the oblique order of battle, see Mélonges I. iii. dicté au comte de Montholon; and Précis des Guerres de Frederic II.

intended, as, for instance, at Leipsic, where three fire-balls gave the signal for battle on the side of the allies; or by skirmishes of the light troops, which is the most common case. The artillery endeavors to dismount the batteries of the enemy, to destroy his columns, and, in general, to break a passage, if possible, for the other troops. The forces, at the present day, are brought into action mostly in columns, and not, as formerly, in long but weak lines. Here the skill of the commanders of battalions is exerted. Upon them rests the principal execution of the actual combat. The plans and orders of a general reach only to a certain point; the chiefs of battalions must do the great work of the battle. Before the battle, the general places himself upon a point, from which he can see the conflict, and where he can easily receive reports-upon a hill, in a windmill, &c. Sometimes, if there is no such favorable point, a staging is erected. Napoleon stood upon such a one in the battle of Waterloo. A few men are near him, as his body-guard; others take charge of the plans and maps; telescopes are indispensable. He often sends one of his aids to take instant command of the nearest body of cavalry, in order to execute an order which must be carried into effect quickly. He receives the reports of the generals under him, and gives new orders; disposes of the troops not yet in action; strengthens weak points; throws his force upon the enemy, where he sees them waver; or changes, if necessary, with a bold and ingenious thought, the whole order of battle. The general now uses every means to bring on the third period of the battle-the decisive moment. This cannot always be the result of combinations. It often takes place much sooner than was expected; it is often protracted by accidents, want of energy on the part of the commanders, &c. Sometimes all the operations are drawing to the end, which the general aimed at, when an unforeseen accident suddenly gives a new impulse to the enemy. Victory or defeat depend now upon one moment, one happy idea. Perhaps it is allimportant to break, at once, the enemy's

centre; perhaps to concentrate the destructive power of the artillery, and, sweeping away some obstacle, to send, as Napoleon often did, a torrent of cavalry upon a certain point. Any thing which can carry disorder into the ranks of the enemy is of great use. If he begins to waver, or to retreat in order, or to flee in disorder, it is always necessary to follow up the victory with all possible vigor and celerity. This is as important as victory itself. Napoleon was, till the last war in Germany, a master in this particular. There are three maxims as important for the general as they are simple:-1. Know your enemy, his strength and intentions; 2. make all the operations and manœuvres of the parts coincide, as much as possible, with the great plan of the battle; 3. pursue victory to the utmost. It is also a maxim, in regard to battles, as well as to the conduct of war generally, to make the enemy conform to your plans, and to avoid the necessity of accommodating yourself to his. Stratagems often are of the greatest advantage. After a battle, care must be taken of the wounded. Soldiers are often appointed to take care of their unfortunate comrades during the battle. It ought to be always done, though it never can do good to any great extent. At night, if cold, fires are lighted, that the wounded may creep to them. Peasants are sent out to bring in the living, and to bury the dead in large pits; but, if possible, soldiers should always be sent with them, because the peasants, if of the enemy's nation, often plunder half-dead soldiers, and bury them alive. They are generally very rapacious, and think they have a right to indemnify themselves for their severe losses. The editor himself was once in such hazard, and was saved only by an extraordinary circumstance.Several games have been invented, to explain the manner of conducting war and battles, in which the effect of cannon, &c., is represented by dice; pieces of lead, differently colored, represent the different troops. One of the most ingenious contrivances of this kind was invented by Mr. von Reisswitz, of Berlin.