century, the mode of baptism by sprinkling, which has been continued by the Protestants, the Baptists (q. v.) only excepted. The introduction of this mode of baptism was owing to the great inconvenience which arose from the immersion of the whole body in the northern climates of Europe. The custom of sprinkling thrice, in the administration of the rite, spread with the diffusion of the doctrine of the Trinity. In the first centuries of the Christian era, when, generally speaking, adults only joined the new sect, the converted (catechumens, q.v.) were diligently instructed; the power of this sacrament to procure perfect remission of sins was taught, and, while some converts delayed their baptism from a feeling of sinfulness not yet removed, others did the same from the wish to gratify corrupt desires a little longer, and to have their sins forgiven all at once. But the doctrine of St. Augustine, that the unbaptized were irrevocably damned, changed this delay into haste, and made the baptism of children general. The death of a martyr, however, who perished while yet a catechumen, was accounted equally effectual for salvation with baptism. This was called baptisma sanguinis (baptism of blood, q. v.). When, in the 5th century, Christianity became more firmly established, and the fear of the relapse of Christain proselytes into their former faith, which had so often occurred in the period of persecution, diminished, the baptism of children became still more general, and is now the common custom of Christians, with the exception of the Baptists. In America, however, it is not so universally practised as in Europe. The abuse of this rite by the Montanists, in Africa, who baptized even the dead, could be abolished only by severe punishments; but, in Roman Catholic countries, the practice of baptizing church-bells continues to this day-a custom which first came into use in the 10th century. This is done from the belief that the ringing of such bells during a thunder-storm serves to protect the neighborhood. As baptism is a sacrament, and considered by the Catholics so very efficacious, the Roman church has strictly prohibited the re-baptism of baptized heretics, on their conversion to Catholicism. Anti-trinitarians, only, are to be baptized again. Protestants, of course, acknowledge the validity of the baptism of other Protestant sects, as well as of that of the Catholic church. The Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do

not. The exorcism (q. v.) is not abolished in all Protestant countries. The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula, that the person is baptized in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost; but this act, among most Christians, is preceded by a confession of faith, made, by the sponsors, in the name of the person to be baptized, if a child. Even in the ancient church, every person, when baptized, was attended by a Christian friend of the same sex, who became responsible for the faith of the new Christian, and promised to take care of his spiritual welfare. The form still remains, though the promise is not very strictly complied with in most cases. After baptism in the Catholic church, the baptized person receives milk and honey, as a symbol of his spiritual youth; and the spiritual privileges which he acquires as a Christian are all indicated by symbols; thus the salt of wisdom is given, the garment of innocence is put on, &c. The Catholic church acknowledges three kinds of baptism, that of water, fire and blood (baptisma fluminis, flaminis, sanguinis). The first is the common one; the second is perfect love of God, connected with a sincere and ardent desire to be baptized; the third is the martyrdom of a catechumen for the Christian faith. All three are equal in their effect. The Roman church acknowledges, that all persons not baptized are damned, even infants; but it does not state what they are to suffer; for even St. Augustin, the sternest and severest preacher of this doctrine, deemed it hard that those who had not yet sinned should be damned for eternity in consequence of the sin of Adam; and he thinks that their suffering will be slight. Some scholastic theologians have thought that the pain they were to endure would consist in separation from God. The Jansenists believe in the total damnation of infants not baptized. Dante, who so strictly adhered to the dogmas of his church, but always retained his sensibility to the feelings of humanity, gives, in the 4th canto of his Inferno, a place to all virtuous heathens, and infants not baptized, separate from the other part of hell; and it is easily seen with what reluctance he placed them there. (See Calvin.)

BAPTISM OF BLOOD. Tertullian gave this name to martyrdom before baptism, and to the death of martyrs in general, which he, and, after him, other Christian fathers, considered as another and more effectual baptism for purification from sins, and urgently recommended to believers.

BAPTISTS; a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions respecting the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the former, they maintain the necessity of immersion, from the signification of the word ẞanrigw, to dip, used by the sacred writers; from the performance of the rite in rivers in the primitive ages, and from the phraseology used in describing the ceremony. With regard to the subjects, they consider that baptism ought not to be administered to children nor infants at all, nor to adults in general, but to those only who profess repentance and faith. This they defend from the language of scripture, "Repent, and be baptized," &c., and from the existence of catechumens in the ancient churches, who were instructed before they were baptized. They are sometimes called Anti-pædobaptists, to express their variance from those who defend infant baptism, and who are called Padobaptists. The peculiar sentiments of this denomination have spread so much among other sects, that we find Baptists equally among Calvinists and Arminians, Trinitarians and Unitarians.-The Baptists, of all descriptions, adopt the Independent or Congregational form of church government, and all their ecclesiastical assemblies disclaim any right to interfere with the concerns of individual churches. The meetings of the members of different congregations are held for the purpose of mutual advice, and not for the general government of the whole body.-The Particular Baptists of England, the Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes are Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. All, except some of the Christian Society, are Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and some of the General Baptists of England, admit of open communion: the other bodies decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. Some of the principal divisions are the Particular Baptists, who adopt the doctrine of particular election; the General Baptists, who profess the doctrine of universal redemption. Some of the churches of the latter have three orders, separately ordained-messengers, elders and deacons. The Associated or Calvinistic Baptists of America are the most numerous denomination in the U. States. They had, in 1824, about 150 associations, in which are more than 3000 churches, about 2500 preachers, and 250,000 communicants.-The Seventh

day Baptists, or Sabbatarians, observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists profess the doctrine of free salvation. The first church of this order was gathered in New Hampshire (U. States) in 1780; and there were, in 1824, 10,000 communicants in the U. States. The Christian Society is Anti-Calvinistic and Anti-trinitarian. The first church was founded, in 1803, in Portsmouth, N. H.; the number of communicants, in 1824, was about 20,000. Their churches have organized the General Christian Conference. They profess to reject useless forms and ceremonies, to use scriptural expressions, and disclaim all creeds and articles of faith.-The Tunkers are distinguished for their simplicity of dress and manners, and for wearing beards. At an early period of the reformation, the subject of infant baptism was discussed. The Anabaptists (q. v.) are not, however, to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom their principles were expressly disclaimed. The persecution of dissenters, in the reign of Elizabeth, gave rise to the foundation of the first regular church of this sect, though their principles had prevailed much earlier. We may date the first public acknowledgment of the Baptists as distinct from the Anabaptists from their petition to parliament in 1620. In 1623, they are described as carrying an external appearance of holiness, as denying the doctrines of predestination, reprobation, &c. It is therefore probable that the Baptists of that time were General Baptists. The year 1633 provides us with the earliest records remaining of the formation of a Particular Baptist church in London. Between these two denominations, there never has been much intercourse. Both of them have repeatedly and publicly disclaimed anabaptism. The Particular Baptists have never had any material dispute amongst their members, except upon a point agitated also amongst the General Baptists-that of mixed communion: the question is, whether persons baptized in infancy, and not re-baptized at full age, may be admitted to partake the sacrament in their congregation.The whole number of Baptist churches in the U. States was, in 1824, about 5600; that of the communicants about 407,684. (For information on the peculiar tenets of the Baptists, see the works of Drs. Gill and Gale, Abraham Booth, and Wall's History of Infant Baptism. See, also, Anabaptist and Mission.)

BAR; the partition which separates the

members of a court from those who have to report or to hear. The English parliament, also, has at its entrance such bars; and the national convention of France adopted this arrangement, and the custom of summoning before their bar all from whom it desired information. This encroachment on the executive and judiciary branches of government, by a body whose proper business was deliberation and discussion, was the cause of many of the horrors of the revolution. At the time when 50 lives were daily sacrificed, in Paris, under Robespierre, when the monster Carrier, at Nantes, caused 300 innocent children to be drowned in one night, the national convention had not the courage to expel the wretches who interrupted their labors by singing patriotic songs at the bar. However, on the 16th March, 1794, they issued a decree que dorénavant on n'entendra plus à la barre de la Convention que la raison en prose.

BARATARIA; a bay and island of Louisiana, on the north side of the gulf of Mexico; 55 miles N. W. of the Balize; lon. 90° W.; lat. 29° N. The bay is about 18 miles in length, and at its entrance is the island, which is a strong military position, and affords a safe and capacious harbor for merchant vessels, and light ships of war. This island was the noted resort of La Fitte's piratical squadron, by whom it was fortified at both ends, in 1811. The adjacent country is an open, level region, and to the north is a fine tract, well adapted to the cultivation of sugar.

BARB. (See Horse.)

BARBADOES, one of the Caribbees, and the most eastern of the West India islands, supposed to have been discovered by the Portuguese, but belonging to the English, was settled by the latter in 1605. It lies 20 leagues E. of St. Vincent, 28 S. E. Martinique; lon. 59° W.; lat. 13° 10 N. It is 21 miles long, and 14 broad, containing 106,470 acres, most of which is under cultivation. It is divided into 11 parishes,, and contains 4 towns, viz. Bridgetown, the capital, Speight's Town, Austin's Town, and Jamestown. Pop., in 1786, 16,167 whites, 838 free people of color, and 62,115 slaves: in 1811, 16,289 whites, 3,392 free people of color, and 62,258 slaves; total, 81,939. Slaves in 1817, 77,273. According to Humboldt's tables, prepared in 1823-24, B. contained 21,000 free persons and 79,000 slaves; total, 100,000.-The climate is very hot, but the air is pure, and moderated by the constant trade winds; but it is subject to dreadful

hurricanes. The soil in the low lands is black, somewhat reddish in the shallow parts, on the hills of a chalky marl, and near the sea generally sandy. Of this variety of soil, the black mould is best suited to the cultivation of the cane, and, with the aid of manure, has given as great returns of sugar, in favorable seasons, as any in the West Indies, the prime lands of St. Christopher's excepted. The houses of the planters are very numerous all along the country, which, with the luxuriant productions of the soil, and the gently-swelling hills, form a delightful scene. The average annual exports for eight years, from 1740 to 1748, were 13,948 hogsheads of sugar, of 13 cwt. each, 12,884 puncheons of rum, of 100 gallons each, 60 hogsheads of molasses, 4,667 bags of ginger, 600 bags of cotton, and 327 gourds of aloes. The exports, on an average, in 1784, 1785 and 1786, had fallen to 9,554 hogsheads of sugar, 5,448 puncheons of rum, 6,320 bags of ginger, 8,331 bags of cotton, exclusive of some smaller articles. Value of exports in 1809, £450,760; in 1810, £271,597. Imports in 1809, £288,412; in 1810, £311,400.-The Moravians have two missionaries, and the Methodist society one, on this island. (See West Indies.) Much information on this island is to be found in Mr. Wilberforce's report to parliament. It is thought that Barbadoes reached its summit of prosperity a hundred years ago.

BARBARELLI. (See Giorgione.)

BARBARIAN. The Greeks gave the name Bápßapos to every one who spoke their language badly. The term was afterwards applied to all foreign nations; and, as the civilization of Greece was really much higher than that of the surrounding nations, the idea of rude, illiterate, uncivilized, soon connected itself with the word. The Romans, in this, as in many other cases, imitated the Greeks, and applied the term barbarus to all nations except themselves and the Greeks the two most civilized states of antiquity. This word, however, did not always convey the idea of something odious; thus Plautus calls Nævius barbarum poetam, because he had not written in Greek. Cicero (ad Div. ix. 3.) uses the word barbari in reference to illiterate persons, without taste; and we still apply the term barbarism to an expression which offends the rules of a language. The signification of cruelty, implied in the word, is of modern origin. Arrogant as it may appear to us, to apply a term of contempt to every foreigner, a similar usage has existed, and still exists

to a certain degree, among the European races. These, for a long time, applied the term savage, or some corresponding word, to all nations who had not received the Christian faith; and, even at the present time, Christian nations generally seem to consider themselves released from the ordinary rules of morality, when they have to deal with nations of another religion. If the ancients appear to us arrogant in this respect, we must not forget, that they never looked upon the barbarians in the light of inferior beings; never spoke of them, nor conducted towards them, in the style which the Spaniards have used towards the barbarians of America, and many other nations besides them towards the barbarians of Africa.

BARBARINO, Francesco da; one of the earliest Italian poets. He was born at Barbarino, in Tuscany, in 1264, and studied jurisprudence at Padua and Bologna. He was employed as an ecclesiastical lawyer, and had the degree of doctor of laws conferred on him by pope Clement V. He is reckoned among the founders of Italian literature, on account of his poem entitled Documenti d'Amore, which relates to moral philosophy. It was first printed at Rome, in 1640, by Ubaldini. The greater part of his works are lost. Barbarino died of the plague, at Florence, in 1348.

BARBAROSSA; emperor of Germany. (See Frederic I.)

BARBAROSSA, Aruch or Horuc; the son of a renegado of Lemnos, and a noted pirate. Having, by his success in piracy on the coast of Barbary, made himself master of 12 galleys stoutly manned with Turks, he rendered himself so formidable, that Selim Eutemi, ruler of the country about Algiers, called in his assistance against the Spaniards. Being admitted into Algiers with his men, he caused Selim to be strangled in a bath, and himself to be proclaimed king. He acted with the greatest tyranny, which produced a revolt among the Arabs, who sought the aid of the king of Tunis. This confederacy was defeated, and Tunis itself taken, of which B. also declared himself the sovereign. He then marched to Tremecen, the prince of which he also defeated, and was admitted into their capital by the people, who first beheaded their fugitive king. The next heir of Tremecen then applied for aid to Gomares, governor of Oran for Charles V, who marched with a powerful army towards Tremecen. B. leaving the town, with his Turks, to meet this new enemy,

the people shut the gates; on which he endeavored to fly, but, being overtaken, fought like a lion in the toils, and was cut to pieces, with all his Turks, in the 44th year of his age, A. D. 1518.

BARBAROSSA, Hayradin or Khayr Eddin; younger brother of the preceding. He was left by Aruch to secure Algiers, when he marched against Tunis, and, on his death, was proclaimed king in his place. Finding his authority insecure, he made application to the Ottoman sultan Soliman, offering to recognise his superiority, and become tributary, provided a force was sent to him sufficient to maintain him in his usurpation. Soliman agreed to his proposals, and, ordering him a reënforcement of janizaries, invested him with the dignity of viceroy or pacha over the kingdom of Algiers. Thus reënforced, Hayradin built a wall for the improvement of the harbor, strengthened it with fortifications, and may be deemed the founder of that mischievous seat of piracy, as it has ever since existed. Such was his reputation for naval and military talents, that Soliman II made him his capitan pacha. In this capacity, he signalized himself by a long course of exploits against the Venetians and Genoese; and, in 1543, when Francis I made a league with Soliman, B. left Constantinople, and, with a powerful fleet, having the French ambassador on board, took Reggio, and sacked the coast of Italy. In conjunction with the French, he also besieged and took Nice, and, refitting, during the winter, at Toulon, again ravaged the coasts and islands of Italy in the ensuing spring, and returned with many prisoners and much spoil to Constantinople. From this time he seems to have declined active service, and to have given himself up to a voluptuous life among his female captives, until the age of 80, when he died, and his successor Hassan became possessed of his authority and riches. With the ferocity of a Turk and a corsair, he possessed some generous sentiments, and obtained a character for honor and fidelity in his engagements.

BARBARY STATES. The states of Barbary lie on the northern coast of Africa, westerly from Egypt, as far as the Atlantic ocean. They are, Tripoli (including Barca), Tunis, Algiers, Fez and Morocco They are, with the exception of some little republics in Barca, all seats of the military despotism of the Turks and Moors. This tract of land, of 741,650 square miles, is intersected by the Atlas mountains, whose highest summits are

constantly covered with snow. The loftiest among them, not far from the city of Morocco, is 12,000 feet high. On the coast, a mild, healthy, spring-like breeze prevails the whole year, except in July and August, when the suffocating south wind blows. The plague is never generated here, but is brought from Constantinople. The ground is fruitful in those places where it is watered by rivers running from the Atlas mountains into the Mediterranean. From July till October, when all other plants are scorched up by the sun, the oleander still survives to enliven the landscape. In winter, the ground is watered by frequent and violent showers. In January, the meadows are already adorned with verdure. In April and May, the whole country is covered with flowers. The moisture and warmth impart to the productions of the soil an uncommon vigor and an exuberant growth. Barley is the most important production. Wheat, maize, millet, rice, and a kind of pulse (in Spanish, garbanços), which are eaten roasted, in large quantities, are generally cultivated. The Indian fig-tree, which takes root easily, forms impenetrable hedges for gardens and vineyards. The vine stretches itself, in beautiful windings, from one tree to another. Its trunk is often as large as that of a common-sized tree. Everywhere are seen well-cultivated olive-gardens. The pomegranates are three times as large as in Italy. Excellent oranges ripen in great quantities. Melons, cucumbers, cabbages, lettuce, abound. The artichoke grows wild. The henna is raised in the gardens. The acorns of the quercus ballota, with a high trunk, an article of food of the inhabitants, taste like wild chestnuts. The tall, tapering cypress, the cedar, the almond-tree, the white mulberry-tree, the indigofera glauca (which is important for dyeing), the cineraria of the meadows (which is efficacious against the stone), the fragrant cistus, the splendid cactus, grow every where. The hills are covered with thyme and rosemary, which purify the air, and serve for fire-wood. In all directions are seen bushes of white roses, from which is extracted the purest essence. The sugarcane flourishes excellently. An inferior variety of this, called soliman, reaches a considerable height, and is more juicy than any other in the world. The lotus and the palm-tree are of the greatest advantage to the inhabitants. The fanpalm grows on the whole coast; the date-palm, in the parts which lie nearer

to the desert of Sahara. There are, along the coast, woods of the cork-tree. Gum is obtained from the acacia-tree.—Among the useful animals, the camel holds the highest place. Greater care might be bestowed on the breeding of horses and buffaloes. Sheep with fat tails are common. Wild boars and many other species of game are abundant. In the interior of the country are apes, jackals, hyenas, lions, panthers, ounces, and the gentle gazelles. Ostriches live in the desert. Birds are numerous, as are, also, locusts, gnats, flies, bugs, toads and serpents, the latter from 9 to 12 feet long; river and sea-fish and turtles in abundance. The bees deposit excellent honey in the rocks and trees. The art of mining is neglected; but there is much iron, copper, lead, tin, sulphur, many mineral-springs, much gypsum, lime-stone, good clays, &c., together with salt from springs and the sea, in abundance.-This extensive and beautiful country, separated from Europe only by a sea of no great width, has often been the centre of an advanced civilization. It was distinguished for prosperity, population and industry, under the Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals and Arabians. Its commercial advantages are very great. Its intercourse with the coasts of Europe is far more easy and quick than the intercourse of those coasts with their own capital cities, and the transportation of goods is less expensive from Marseilles and Genoa to Tunis and Algiers than to Paris, or even to Turin and Milan. Cato showed to the Roman senate fresh figs, which were gathered under the walls of Carthage; yet this fruit, except in its dried state, is not edible after three days from the time of gathering. The whole country can support 60 millions of inhabitants, and now hardly contains 10 millions and a half. Next to Egypt, it was the richest and most productive Roman province, and one of the granaries of the mistress of the world. The Roman writers called it the soul of the republic, the jewel of the empire, speciositas totius terræ florentis, and the wealthy citizens considered the possession of palaces and country-houses on this beautiful coast as the highest happiness. The little Arabian courts, too, of Fez, Tetuan, Tremecen, Garbo, Constantine, sedulously encouraged the arts and agriculture. Amalfi, Naples, Messina, Pisa, Genoa and Florence, enriched themselves by their commercial intercourse with this fine country, and the Venetian ships visited all the cities of the African coast. Three centuries ago, an