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also levied in Hungary, and, in addition to this, a body of Russians, 12,000 strong, under the command of general Bennigsen, had invaded Upper Silesia, Dec. 3, and prepared the people of Bohemia to rise in a body; and, in consequence of the treaty of Potsdam, Nov. 3, by which the king of Prussia joined the Russian alliance, an army of 180,000 men-Prussians, Saxons and Hessians-stood ready, in case Napoleon should refuse, on the 15th of December, the mediation of Prussia, according to the treaty of Luneville, to invade France, and to break through Napoleon's line upon the Danube; while an army of 80,000 men- -Prussians, Russians (under Tolstoi), Swedes, Hanoverians and English-in Upper Germany, threatened the frontiers of the Netherlands. In Italy, too, the landing of the English and Russians might effect an important diversion. In spite of all these resources, Austria asked for peace. December 3, prince John von Liechtenstein appeared at Napoleon's head-quarters, and, on the 4th, the emperor Francis himself had a two hours' interview with him at the French outposts, not far from the village of Nasedlowicz, near a mill at Saroschütz, where the two monarchs made a truce, and laid the foundation of a peace. Napoleon's adjutant, general Savary, accompanied the German emperor back to his head-quarters, to learn whether Alexander would accede to the treaty. The Russian accounts say that the emperor would not allow him to come into his presence; but the French bulletins give a circumstantial account of his audience, which is also mentioned by the Austrian general von Stutterheim, the author of Matériaux pour servir à l'Hist. de la Bataille d'Austerlitz (1806, with notes by a French officer, said to have been dictated by Napoleon). Prince Berthier and prince von Liechtenstein concluded, on the 6th, a truce, according to the terms of which the French army was to hold the Austrian circle, Venice, a part of Bohemia and Moravia, and Presburg; the Russian army was to evacuate the territories of the emperor of Austria; no levy was to be made in Bohemia or Hungary, and no foreign army was to enter the states of the house of Austria. On the 7th, Napoleon imposed upon the countries held by his troops a tax of a hundred millions of francs. Alexander, according to the wishes of the emperor of Austria, drew off his army, though he would not accede to the treaty, but placed his troops in Silesia and Lower Saxony,

at the disposal of the king of Prussia. March 4, 1806, his troops in Dalmatia took possession of Cattaro (q. v.), which had been given up by Austria to France. The truce of A. paralyzed the strength of the Austrian monarchy, and broke its former alliances, so that the Prussian minister, count von Haugwitz (who had come to Vienna, in November, that he might act as mediator on the 15th Dec., but had been anticipated by Napoleon), finding, in the altered state of affairs, that he must either declare open war against the French emperor, or make an alliance with him, concluded, Dec. 15, in opposition to his instructions, the treaty by which Prussia exchanged the alliance of Russia for that of France. (See Lucchesini On the Confederation of the Rhine, i. 348, and Schöll's Traités de Paix, viii. 27.) Austria afterwards subscribed, Dec. 26, the hard conditions of the peace of Presburg (q. v.), by which she not only gave up a territory of 24,200 square miles, with 2,785,000 inhabitants, and a revenue of 13,610,000 florins, but lost her alliance with Switzerland and Italy, and her influence in the German empire. Thus Napoleon's superiority was established in Italy, the dependence of the princes of Lower Germany upon France confirmed, and Prussia drawn from its system of neutrality. AUSTIN, St. (See Augustin.)

AUSTRAL OCEAN. (See South Sea and Krusenstern.)

AUSTRALIA. (The English geographers make two divisions of the islands mentioned in this article: 1. Australasia or Australia; those lying around New Holland, from lon. 96° to 185° E., and lat. 3° N. to 50° S. 2. Polynesia, lying N. of Australasia, and E. of the Philippines, from lon. 170° to 230° E., and lat. 35° N. to 50° S. We have retained the term Australia, in the more comprehensive sense in which it is used in Germany, it being a word of indefinite signification.) This is the fifth division of the globe, at first called Southern India, and, on account of the multitude of islands of which it consists, Polynesia, or the Island world. It has its name from its southern position with regard to the old world. This portion of the globe began to be discovered after America and the South seas were known to the Europeans. Magellan, who first undertook a voyage round the world, had promised the Spanish monarch, into whose service he entered when he left the Portuguese, that he would arrive at the Moluccas by sailing westward. On this voyage, he discovered, March 6, 1521, the Ladrones,

or Mariana islands, a group which constitutes a part of A. Magellan must, therefore, be regarded as the first discoverer of this portion of the globe, and opened the way for the subsequent discoveries in this quarter. 300 years elapsed before all the islands, which now pass under the name of A., were known to Europeans. After Magellan, the Spanish navigators continued the process of discovery in this part of the world, particularly Alvaro de Mendana, who, in the last part of the 16th century, discovered the Solomon islands and the Marquesas, and passed through the Society and Friendly islands without seeing them. Fernandez de Quiros, who had accompanied him on his third voyage, took a southerly direction, and hit upon the part of the South sea which contains the most islands. He made known to the world the Society islands and Terra del Espiritu Santo. In the 17th century, the Dutch began to explore this part of the ocean, and, besides several small islands, discovered the largest island of A., New Holland, which received its name from them, although there is some reason for supposing that it had been visited by the Portuguese a hundred years earlier; but their discoveries seem to have been concealed by their government, and afterwards forgotten. The coasts of New Holland, e. g. Edel's Land, Nuyt's Land, De Witt's Land, retain the names of the Dutch discoverers. Tasman, a Dutchman, and Dampier, an Englishman, continued the discoveries. In the middle of the 18th century, the Englishmen Byron, Wallis and Carteret, and the Frenchinan Bougainville exerted themselves to extend the knowledge of A. But James Cook (q. v.), who circumnavigated the world from 1768 to 1779, contributed most to the more accurate examination of this portion of the globe, corrected the knowledge of Europeans with regard to the islands already known, again discovered islands before seen, and was the original discoverer of New Caledonia and the Sandwich islands. After the time of Cook, both the French and English exerted themselves to give the world a better acquaintance with A. Among the later navigators, Entrecasteaux, Grant, La Peyrouse, Baudin, Flinders, Krusenstern and Kotzebue have added to our knowledge of A. There are, doubtless, many islands still in these seas, which no European has seen, and of those known, only the coasts have yet been explored. The South sea and the Pacific ocean, between the eastern shore of Asia and the western shore of Amer

ica, contains all the islands of A. which occupy a space of 130° in length, and 85° in breadth, as they extend from 50° S. to 35° N. lat., and from 95° to 230° E. lon. The superficial contents are estimated at about 3,500,000 square miles; of which New Holland alone is almost equal in size to Europe. We may regard all these islands as continuous chains of mountains, which rise from the sea, and, running in a direction from N. to S. E., in a double row, like hills and promontories, surround New Holland. The line nearest the main land of New Holland begins with New Guinea, and ends with New Zealand ; the second line begins at the Ladrones, and passes on to Navigator's islands and the Friendly islands, whence it takes a direction from the west towards the east. From these almost continuous rows of islands the Sandwich islands are wholly separated.-The soil of A. is fruitful, especially in the islands of the torrid zone. Plants transported hither from Europe flourish. Some of the islands are low and flat; others have steep, rocky shores, and are filled with mountains, some composed of primitive rocks, others of flötz and basalt. The highest known are the Mauna Roa, in the Sandwich islands, and Peak Egmont, in New Zealand, the height of which amounts to 14,000 feet. Several of these islands are of volcanic origin: others are raised from the bottom of the sea by successive layers of coral, or carried to their present height by accumulations of the same substance on the original rocks at the bottom of the deep. The coral formations extend to a distance from their coasts, and constitute reefs, so that it is dangerous to approach them. The mountains of A. have not yet been explored, and their structure investigated. The shores of New Holland, New Guinea and New Zealand, and the mountains in their vicinity, have been examined by naturalists but slightly. The residence of Europeans in the other islands, also, has been too short to allow them to make accurate observations. In later times, the English have made an attempt to pass from the eastern coast of New Holland, where their colonies are situated, to the interior. The mountains extending from north to south, on the west of these colonies, called the Blue hills, consist of steep crags, fearful precipices, and ranges of heights of successively increasing elevation, which made all early attempts to become acquainted with the interior of no avail. At length, Nov. 3, 1813, Mr. Evans, an Englishman, succeeded in as

cending them, and, in 1815, a road was completed over them. On the whole, naturalists have only penetrated into the interior about 140 miles from the eastern shore, though the distance to the western shore is more than 2700 miles. There is a remarkable want of large streams in this portion of the world, though the islands in general are not deficient in water. The rivers of New Holland are small arms of the sea, which extend far into the interior, retain the saltness of the ocean, experience the ebb and flow of the tide, and receive some insignificant streams on the coast. The largest river of New Holland is the Hawkesbury, in Broken Bay, which is navigable for the largest ships 46 miles up the country, and is 150 rods wide. Beyond the Blue hills, the river Macquarie has been discovered, which is lost, with other rivers, in the morasses. New Holland probably contains, according to the account of Oxley, a large lake in the interior, similar to the Caspian, into which the rivers flow. The climate of A.. as it lies partly in the southern temperate zone, and partly in the torrid, is in some parts warm, though the heat is generally less oppressive than in the same latitudes in Asia and Africa. In other parts, it is temperate, mild and healthy. Those countries of A. which lie in the southern hemisphere are colder than those in the northern. The productions are, in part, the same with those of other countries of the same latitude; in part, peculiar to itself: for instance, birds without wings, having hair instead of feathers; quadrupeds with the beaks of birds, white eagles, &c. The mammalia and beasts of prey are few. The principal mammalia are the kangaroo, weighing from 100 to 150 pounds; the wombat (both of which have a pouch under the belly, a characteristic belonging to many of the quadrupeds of New Holland); the ornithorynchus, perhaps the most singular animal in the world, to which nature has given the body of a quadruped, and the head, or, at least, the beak of a bird; the dasyure, the dingo, or New Holland dog, the New Holland flying-squirrel, several species of opossum, the kangaroo rat, hogs, dogs, rats, bats, whales, sea-bears, sea-lions and sea-elephants. Horses, oxen, sheep and goats were introduced there by Europeans. Among the birds which are distinguished for the splendor of their colors and variety of their plumage, are several kinds of parrots and birds of paradise; the New Holland cassiowary, which weighs 70 pounds, and surpasses the East

Indian birds in size and in the beauty of its plumage; the splendid menura, remarkable for the elegance of its tail; and the black swan. There are also hens, doves and ducks. The coasts are well stocked with fish, of which there are several kinds peculiar to them. The varieties of insects and shell-fish are very great. The richness of the vegetable kingdom is still greater: in New Holland alone, 1000 new plants have been discovered. The smaller islands are still richer than New Holland in esculent plants. Among these are the sago, areca, cocoa and eucalyptus trees, which attain a height of 180 feet, and a circumference of 30 feet; the cajaputi, gum-tree, bread-fruit, guavas, bananas, rotang; casuarina, or clubtrees, of which the natives make the most durable weapons and furniture; papermulberry-trees, from the finest bark of which cloth is manufactured; lemons, oranges, figs, sugar-cane, betel-pepper, and another kind of pepper, of which an intoxicating drink, called ava, is made; cotton-trees; New Zealand flax, which forms an excellent cord; yams, arum. These form the principal articles of agriculture in the Sandwich islands. The Europeans have introduced European plants, grains, and garden-fruits, almonds, pomegranates, tobacco, hemp, flax, hops, &c. In the mineral kingdom, though little examination has been given to it, there have been found copper and iron ore, granite, porphyry, basalt, chalcedony, agate, jade, or oriental kidney-stone, marble, lime, rocksalt, &c. A. is very thinly inhabited. There are, on an average, about two inhabitants to a square mile, as the whole number is estimated at only 1,700,000. They consist, principally, of two distinct classes; one of Negroes, called Papuas, and one somewhat different from the Europeans in appearance, and belonging to the Malay race. From the union of the two principal varieties several intermediate ones arise. The Papuas inhabit New Holland, New Guinea, Louisiade, the Solomon islands, New Hebrides, New Britain and New Caledonia; and, in New Holland particularly, they have projecting lips and woolly hair, like all other Negroes, from whom they are distinguished by very thin, lean arms and legs. This race, in cultivation, is far below the other race, the Malays, especially in New Holland, where they have very disgusting and ape-like features, stand on the lowest step of bodily and mental improvement, and live in a savage state, without laws and without religion. Their great mouths,

and thick, projecting lips, jut out somewhat like a snout, and their little, flat noses are lost behind them. Their deepsunk eyes betray a rude and malicious spirit, and sometimes, though rarely, a stupid good humor. They are naked, or slightly clothed in the skins of beasts, live on fish, or the fruits of trees, or on the flesh of the kangaroos, which they find no difficulty in catching, and devour every thing almost raw; they hardly pull the feathers from birds before they consume them. The inhabitants of New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, who are also regarded as Papuas, eat the flesh of their enemies, when they have killed them, though they have fields covered with bananas, yams and arum. The pure Malay race, who inhabit the Australian islands,-i. e. the Friendly, Society and Sandwich islands, are distinguished for the most beautiful and regular forms of which humanity is capable. Their complexion is sometimes not darker than that of the Spaniards and Italians, and some of the women are as white as the most beautiful Europeans. In general, these islanders seem to be good-natured, sociable, gentle, happy and gay. Travellers, however, agree in this, that they have a strong propensity to steal, and give up their wives and daughters to the Europeans without restraint. Among some of them, the shocking custom of eating human flesh, and offering human sacrifices, still prevails. They live in villages, where there are even some public buildings to be found. They make boats ornamented with carved work, tools, furniture, and weapons of stone and wood, which, considering their means, are very remarkable. They make nets, baskets, cords, very fine mats, and cloth for their dress, which they know how to dye exquisitely. They carry on a sort of agriculture, which consists principally in the cultivation of arum, yams and potatoes, and live in a civil union, of which the foundation is a sort of feudal system. They worship a supreme and inferior gods; they have priests and sacrifices, and entertain hopes of sensual indulgences in another life. Their morais, or buildings for the dead, are commonly places where the worship of their gods is performed. English and American missionaries have spread the Christian religion in the Society and Sandwich islands. Among all these isl anders, the inhabitants of the Sandwich islands have made the greatest progress, through their acquaintance with the Eu41

VOL. 1.

ropeans. Besides these original inhabitants of A., there are also some Europeans; a few in the Sandwich islands, upwards of 50,000 in the colony established by the English on the eastern shore of New Holland, and a less number in Van Diemen's Land. In 1824, Great Britain took possession of all the islands and tracts of land in A., lying between 111° E. and 153 W. lon., besides Apsley and Clarence straits, and port Essington, on the peninsula of Coburg. The principal parts of A., besides several smaller islands lying separately, are New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, the Admiralty islands, New Britain, Solomon isles, Queen Charlotte's islands, or the archipelago of Santa Cruz, New Hebrides, or Terra del Santo Espiritu, New Caledonia, New Zealand, the Pelew, Caroline or New Philippine islands, Marian or Ladrone, Monteverdos, Mulgrave, Fisher, Friendly, Bligh's, Navigator's, Society, Marquesas, Washington's and Sandwich islands. (See King's Survey of the Coasts of Australia, London, 1827, and Cunningham's Two Years in New South Wales, 3d edit., London, 1828); also, Statistical Account of the British Settlements in Australasia, &c., 3d ed., London, 1825, 2 vols.)

mon

AUSTRIA (in German, Estreich, i. e. East-empire.) This state is a archy, with a population composed of Germans, Sclavonians, Magyars (by which name the Hungarians call themselves) and Italians. Its cradle was the territory below the Ens. In the time of Charlemagne, about 800, the margraviate of A. was formed by a body of militia, which protected the south-east of Germany from the incursions of the Asiatic tribes. In 1156, it was united with the territory above the Ens, and made a duchy. In 1282, the state began to increase under the dominion of the house of Hapsburg. (q. v.) This dynasty soon added several new territories, which afterwards formed the Austrian circle, and, in 1438, obtained the electoral crown of the German emperors. In 1453, A. was raised to an archduchy, and, having acquired Bohemia and Hungary in 1526, with the consent of the inhabitants, it attained the rank of a European monarchy. The Lorraine branch of the house of Austria maintained this rank at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in the year 1748. They confirmed the union of their territories by elevating the monarchy, in 1804, to a hereditary empire, and established its dignity as one of

the chief powers in Europe, before, during and after the congress of Vienna, in 1815.

Ancient History of the Country till the year 982.-After the Romans had vanquished the Noricans, A. D. 33, and gained possession of the Danube, the country north of the Danube, extending to the borders of Bohemia and Moravia, belonged to the kingdom of the Marcomanni and Quadi; a part of Lower Austria and Stiria, with Vienna (Vindobona), a municipal city of the Roman empire, belonged to Upper Pannonia; the rest of the country, with Carinthia and a part of Carniola, formed a portion of Noricum. Gőrz belonged to the Roman province of Illyricum, and Tyrol to Rhætia. These limits became confused by the irruptions of the barbarians. The Boii, Vandals, Heruli, Rugii, Goths, Huns, Lombards, and Avars, in the course of the 5th and 6th centuries, successively occupied the country. But after the year 568, when the Lombards had established their power in Upper Italy, the river Ens formed the boundary line between the German tribe of Bajuvarii, the proprietors of the territory above the Ens, and the Avars, who had removed from the East to the banks of that stream. In 611, the Wendi, a Sclavonic tribe, appeared on the Murr, Drave, and Save. In 788, the duchy of Bavaria was dissolved, and the Avars passed over the Ens, and invaded the counties of the Franks in the Bavarian territory. In 791, Charlemagne forced them to retire to the Raab, and united the territory extending from the Ens to the junction of the Raab with the Danube (the territory below the Ens) with Germany, under the name of Avaria, or Eastern Marchia (Marchia Orientalis), or Austria; and, in the 10th century (in a document of Otho III, 996), it was called Ostirrichi, or Estreich, the German name for Austria. Many colonists, particularly from Bavaria, were sent by Charlemagne into the new province, and a margrave was appointed to administer the government. The archbishop of Salzburg was at the head of ecclesiastical affairs. After its separation from Verdun, in 843, Avaria formed the eastern boundary of the German empire. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians, in 900, Avaria fell into their hands, and was held by them till 955, when the emperor Otho I, in consequence of the victory of Augsburg, reunited a great part of this province to the empire. By the power and ad

dress of its margraves, the whole country was joined again with Germany, and, in 1043, under the emperor Henry III, and the margrave Albert I (the Victorious), its limits were extended to the Leytha.

Austria under the House of Bamberg, till 1282.—From 982 to 1156, the margraviate of Austria was hereditary in the family of the counts of Babenberg (Bamberg); the succession, however, was not regulated by primogeniture, but by the will of the emperor. In ancient documents, mention is made of the estates of Austria in the year 1096. After Henry the Proud (duke of Bavaria and Saxony) was put under the ban of the empire, Leopold V, margrave of A., received the duchy of Bavaria, in 1138, from the emperor Conrad. But when the margrave Henry, son of Leopold, under the title of Ja-so-mirGott (Yes-so-me-God), had again ceded it, in 1156, to Henry the Lion, the boundaries of A. were extended so as to include the territory above the Ens, and the whole was created a duchy with certain privileges. Under this duke the court resided at Vienna. Duke Leopold VI, the son of Henry, received the duchy of Stiria, in 1192, as a fief from the emperor Henry VI, it having been added to the empire by Otho I, in 955, by his victory over the Hungarians. It was this prince who imprisoned Richard Cœur de Lion (q. v.), king of England. Duke Leopold VII, the youngest son of the former, erected a palace within the city of Vienna, which is still occupied by the Austrian monarchs, under the name of the old castle. Leopold VII, called the Glorious, established the hospital of the Holy Cross, made Vienna, which had adopted a municipal constitution in 1198, a staple-town, and granted 30,000 marks of silver for the promotion of trade and commerce. 1229, he purchased a part of Carniola, from the ecclesiastical principality of Freisingen, for 1650 marks, and left the country in a flourishing condition to the youngest of his three sons, Frederic II, surnamed the Warrior. In 1236, this prince was put under the ban of the empire, on account of his joining the alliance of the cities of Lombardy against the emperor Frederic II; and Otho, duke of Bavaria, seized upon his territory above the Ens as far as Lintz. The rest of the country was granted, as a fief, by the emperor, to a margrave, and Vienna became an imperial city. During the emperor's campaign in Italy, duke Frederic recovered the principal part of his lands, and his rights were confirmed

In