highly important fact, the scientific world is indebted to Caspar W. Pennock, M. D. of Philadelphia, whose experiments are published in the 1st vol. of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, where he has shown that simple pressure, however applied, sufficient to close the vessels on the side of the wound next the heart, prevents any poison, even that of the rattlesnake, from producing injurious

consequences.

ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officinalis is a well known plant, the young shoots of which are a favorite culinary vegetable. Few circumstances in the phenomena of vegetation are more remarkable than the gradual enlargement of size, and improvement of quality, which have taken place in the cultivation of asparagus. It grows wild on the pebbly beach near Weymouth (England), and in the island of Anglesea; but its stem, in these situations, is not usually thicker than a goose-quill, and its whole height does not exceed a few inches: whereas, in gardens, its stem is sometimes nearly three quarters of an inch thick, and its height, when at maturity, is four or five feet. Asparagus is one of the greatest delicacies which our kitchen gardens afford, and it is particularly valuable from the early season at which it is produced. It is usually raised from seed, in beds formed for the purpose; and the plants should remain three years in the ground before they are cut; after which, for several years, they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. During the winter, they are secured from the effects of frost by the beds being covered some inches thick with straw or litter. In the cutting of asparagus, the knife is passed three or four inches beneath the ground. The plants are cut by sloping the blade upward; and the white part that we see is that which had not previously been exposed to the air. The smallest plants are suffered to grow, for the purpose of producing berries to restock the beds, and keep them continually in a state of supply.

ASPASIA was born at Miletus, in Ionia. Her father's name was Axiochus. She seems to have followed the example of Thargelia, another beautiful woman of Ionia, who united a love for politics and learning with all the graces of her sex. All foreign women, in Athens, were deprived of the benefits of the laws: their children were looked upon as illegitimate, even though they were the offspring of a lawful marriage. To this circumstance it is in a great measure owing, that A.

has been classed among courtesans. She devoted her attention to politics and eloquence. Plato mentions an elegant speech, which she delivered in praise of the Athenians who fell at Lechæum; and she is asserted to have instructed Pericles in eloquence. Her house was the general resort of the most virtuous, learned and distinguished men in Greece, and Socrates often favored her with his company he was even accused of a sensual passion for her. She inspired the strongest and most enduring affection in the heart of the noble Pericles, who understood the grand secret of being, at the same time, the citizen and the ruler of a republic. The people used to call Pericles Olympian Jupiter, and his companion Aspasia Juno. The orator divorced his former wife to marry A. Plutarch relates that he constantly evinced the liveliest attachment for her a feeling which could never have been inspired by a low and corrupt courtesan. She is accused of having been the cause of two wars-one between the Athenians and Samians, on account of her native Miletus; the other between the Athenians and Lacedæmonians, on account of Megara. Plutarch acquits her of this charge, and Thucydides does not mention her name, though he relates the minutest circumstances which gave birth to the Peloponnesian war. The accusation alluded to is mentioned only by Aristophanes, whose historical correctness cannot be trusted. When the Athenians were dissatisfied with Pericles, instead of attacking him, they persecuted the objects of his particular favor, and accused A., among others, of contempt of the gods. Pericles burst into tears, in the midst of the areopagus, while advocating her cause, and disarmed the severity of the judges. After his death, A., who had been the friend of Socrates, the companion of Pericles, and the object of Alcibiades' devoted adoration, is said to have attached herself to an obscure individual, of the name of Lysicles, whom she soon made, however, an influential citizen in Athens. It may be said, with safety, that A. had an important influence over the whole nation; for the men who sat at the helm of government were formed in her society. Her name was so celebrated, that the younger Cyrus named his favorite Milto after her; for Aspasia signified the loveliest of women, as Alexander the bravest of heroes.

ASPECT, in astronomy and astrology, denotes the situation of the planets and

stars with respect to each other. There are five different aspects:-1, sextile aspect, when the planets or stars are 60° distant, and marked thus, *; 2, the quartile or quadrate, when they are 90° distant, marked; 3, trine, when 120° distant, marked; 4, opposition, when 180° distant, marked 8; and, 5, conjunction, when both are in the same degree, marked 6. Kepler added 8 more. It is to be observed, that these aspects, being first introduced by astrologers, were distinguished into benign, malignant, and indif ferent; and Kepler's definition of aspect, in consequence, is, "Aspect is the angle formed by the rays of two stars meeting on the earth, whereby their good or bad influence is measured."

ASPEN. The aspen or trembling poplar (populus tremula), is a tree which grows in moist woods, has nearly circular leaves, toothed and angular at the edges, smooth on both sides, and attached to foot-stalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest wind. There is scarcely any situation in which the aspen will not flourish; but it succeeds best where the soil is moist and gravelly. Its wood is light, porous, soft, and of a white color, and, though inferior in excellence to that of the white poplar, is applicable to many useful purposes. It is used, particularly, for field-gates, the frames of pack-saddles, for milk-pails, clogs, and the wood of pattens. It is improper for bedsteads, as it is liable to be infested by bugs. In some countries, the bark of the young trees is made into torches.

ASPER, ASPRE, or ARKTSHE; the smallest silver coin of Turkey. The common asper, since 1764, has amounted to the 35th part of a drachm of fine silver. 3 make a para, 120 a piaster or dollar. The great or heavy aspers, in which the courtofficers receive their payment, are of double the value and weight of the common asper.

ASPERN and ESSLINGEN; two villages lying east of Vienna, and on the opposite bank. They are celebrated for the battle fought, May 21st and 22d, 1809, between the archduke Charles and the emperor Napoleon. After the fall of the capital, the Austrian general resolved to suffer a part of the enemy's forces to pass the Danube, and then to surround them with his own army, and drive them, if possible, into the river. Every thing seemed to favor this plan; but it was frustrated by the energy of the French general, and the extraordinary valor of his troops. The

archduke now stationed himself behind Gerasdorf, between Bisamberg and Russbach, from which he issued with his army in five columns, consisting of 75,000 men, with 288 pieces of cannon, May 21, at noon, just as Napoleon, with about half his forces, had left the island of Lobau, in the Danube. By a dexterous evolution of his troops, he immediately formed a semi-circle, in which the French army was, in a manner, enclosed. In the narrow plain between Aspern and Esslingen (they are about two miles distant from one another), a bloody engagement now commenced. Every thing depended on the possession of these two villages: Aspern was, at first, taken by the Austrians, again lost and retaken, till they, at length, remained masters of it: from Esslingen they were continually repulsed. Napoleon repeatedly attempted to force the centre of the Austrians, but was frustrated by the firmness of their infantry. At last, the darkness of the night put a temporary stop to the contest. The bridge, connecting the right bank of the Danube with the island of Lobau, had already been destroyed, so that the French reënforcements came up slowly, being compelled to sail over in small parties, and the whole corps of Davoust, on the right bank, were idle spectators of the battle. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the battle was renewed on the 22d; the French army being now increased so as, at least, to equal the Austrians in number. The engagement was of the same exterminating character as on the day before; thousands of lives were sacrificed in vain attempts to capture the villages. Aspern continued to be the strong-hold of the Austrians, and Esslingen of the French. When the army of Napoleon gave up all hopes of gaining the victory by forcing the centre of the Austrians, Esslingen served to secure their retreat to the island of Lobau, which was disturbed only by the cannon of the archduke. It has been said, that the archduke did not make a proper use of his advantage; but this assertion will be shown to be erroneous, if we consider the position of the French on the island, the courage of his adversary, and the want of materials for rebuilding bridges. The loss of the Austrians, in killed, wounded, &c., was estimated at less than a third of the whole army; that of the French at half. The latter lost, on this occasion, marshal Lannes. (q. v.) The feelings of the combatants were too violent to allow of many prisoners being made.

by protracted ill usage has fixed upon the race the character of obstinacy and stupidity. The ass is truly smaller in size, and wanting in that ardor and impetuosity which distinguish the horse, yet there are circumstances in which these differences give the ass a higher value. He requires a smaller quantity, and is content with a coarser quality, of food than the horse, and is therefore far better adapted for hilly and mountainous regions, where the horse is more difficult to feed, as well as less able to travel to advantage. In high and dry situations, over the most precipitous roads, the ass moves with ease and security, under a load which would render it almost impossible for a horse to advance with safety. In various parts of South America, asses are exceedingly serviceable in carrying ores, &c., down steep mountains; and in the West India islands, they are of great value in carrying the sugar-cane to the mills, from situations barely accessible to man, on account of the acclivity of the ground.-Washington, so justly named the father of his country, was the first who introduced this useful animal into the U. States; and his laudable example has since been imitated by a small number of agriculturists. Nevertheless, either from prejudice or neglect, the benefits derivable from a more general employment of this animal for draught and burthen have not been attained. The best breed of asses is that originally derived from the dry and hot regions of Asia; perhaps the best breed now accessible to Americans is the Spanish, which was obtained through Arabia and Egypt, and long received a most careful attention in Spain. During the existence of the Spanish dominion in the southern portion of the American continent, this breed was generally introduced, and may be thence obtained at this time in considerable perfection. Those raised in Peru, where the breeding of the animal is carefully attended to, are very good. Very valuable asses are also exported from the island of Puerto Rico to the adjacent islands, where they are more useful in the cultivation of sugar than horses, as they consume much less provender, and, as already stated, are better adapted to the work. The male ass is in condition to propagate his species at two years of age; the female still earlier; and both sexes manifest a sexual ardor which is really surprising, and sometimes destructive. It therefore becomes necessary to geld the males not intended to continue the race, and the operation is performed in the same way as on horses. 36

VOL. I.

The regular season for the females is about the month of June, though many observe no regular period; in the latter case, however, they are less productive. The ass carries her young 11 months, and foals at the commencement of the 12th. The mare is again in condition to receive the male seven days after foaling, and may thus be almost constantly kept breeding, until too far advanced in life. It happens exceedingly seldom that more than one foal is brought forth at once: the mare exhibits great attachment to this while it is suckling: it becomes necessary to wean it at six months old, if the mare be again gravid. The teeth of the young ass follow the same order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse.-The most general color of the ass is a mouse-colored gray, with a black or blackish stripe, extending along the spine to the tail, and crossed by a similar stripe over the fore-shoulders. Varieties of color are observed in different breeds, though by no means to the same extent as among horses. In some places, dappled and pied asses are not uncommon, and pure white ones are also found. In proportion as the color of the ass verges toward reddish-brown or bay, it is considered as an indication of bad disposition and inferior quality.-As we cannot, for want of space, enter upon a more detailed history of this species, we may sum up the circumstances which entitle the ass to a greater degree of attention than it has hitherto received, by observing that it is gentle, strong, hardy, patient of toil, requiring but a small quantity of coarse food, sure-footed, and capable of a high degree of attachment to its owner. It is especially suited to the cultivation of light and dry soils, in hilly or mountainous districts, or in hot and dry climates, where the breed arrives at the highest perfection. -The disagreeable noise called braying, the voice of this species, is owing to the peculiar construction of the larynx. In the geldings, this ceases to be an inconvenience, as they attempt to bray but seldom, and always in a low key. Nothing is more certain than that, as this species has exceedingly deteriorated under a longcontinued ill usage, it might be improved to an equal degree by the same attention which is bestowed on the breeding of other domestic animals. The life of the ass does not exceed 30 years.-Asses' milk, long celebrated for its sanative qual ities, more closely resembles that of the human female than any other. It is very similar in taste, and throws up an equally

fluid cream, which is not convertible into butter. Invalids suffering from debility of the digestive and assimilative functions make use of asses' milk with great advantage: persons in consumption also derive benefit from its use, as it is at once nutritive and unproductive of irritation while digesting. The ass, whose milk is taken for invalids, should have foaled but a short time previously, and be secluded from the male. The quality of her food, and her comfortable stabling, should also be particularly attended to.-The mules produced between the he-ass and the mare are generally known; and they combine the good qualities of both animals in a remarkable degree. In some countries, they are even more highly prized than horses, on account of their greater hardiness. The mule produced between the horse and the she-ass is a smaller animal than the common mule, and altogether inferior.

ASSALINI, Pietro, of Modena, studied medicine in Italy. On account of a duel in which he had been concerned, he entered the French army as surgeon-major, and accompanied Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, as far as Jaffa. At this place, the French garrison was attacked by the plague, and, at the end of 40 days, the number of men able to bear arms was reduced two thirds. In his Mémoire sur la Peste (Observations on the Plague) (1803), he maintains that the plague is not so dangerous for physicians and attendants as is commonly supposed, if they remain with the sick only as long as their duties require, and immediately inhale fresh air. He states that baron Larrey dissected several persons, who had died of that disease, and carefully examined the biles caused by it; and that Desgenettes introduced into his blood, by a lancet, the poison from one of these sores, in two different places; but neither of these physicians was attacked by the disease. To these observations on the plague are added remarks on the yellow fever in Cadiz, on the dysentery, so frequent in armies, and on the mirage, or image of the opposite shore reflected from the clouds, in the straits of Sicily and Calabria. (See Fata Morgana.) Napoleon raised the author to important and influential stations. In 1811, he wrote a work, in Italian, on diseases of the eyes, which was highly approved, and added much to his fame. He published, also, the same year, Novi Stromenti di Ostetricia e loro Uso, and recommended a new forceps to be employed in delivery, with improved instruments for the Cæsarean

operation, which were approved by a committee of the national institute. In the Russian campaigns of 1812 and 1813, he had the misfortune to freeze some of his limbs. He is still living at Milan, an esteemed physician, and professor of clinical surgery. His treatise on surgery, in Italian, is a valuable work.

ASSAM, or ASHAM; a country between Bengal and Thibet, 700 miles in length, by about 70 in breadth. It is intersected by the Bramapootra, and several other rivers; is very fertile; and, in the beds of the rivers, a considerable quantity of gold is found. It also yields ivory, lac, pepper, silk, cotton, &c. The inhabitants are genuine Hindoos. No European merchant is permitted to settle in this country without the previous permission of the East India company-a favor which was granted to it by the rajah, after having been reinstated in his government by its assistance, in 1793.

ASSAS (Nicholas), chevalier d', was born at Vigan. He was commander of a French regiment at Auvergne, and, by his patriotic death, made himself worthy of the admiration of posterity. On the night of the 15th of October, 1760, he commanded an outpost at Klosterkamp, in the neighborhood of Gueldres, and, at break of day, went out to examine the posts. On this expedition, he fell in with a division of the enemy's troops, who were on the point of assaulting the French army. He was seized, and threatened with immediate death if he uttered a cry to alarm his regiment. The safety of the French forces was at stake. Without a moment's hesitation, he summoned all his strength, and exclaimed, "Onward, Auvergne! here is the enemy !" The threat was immediately executed, but the patriot had gained his object; the attack was unsuccessful. Assas was never married; but a pension of 1000 livres was decreed to . his family forever: the payment was interrupted during the revolution, but has since been renewed.

ASSASSINS. (See Ishmaelites.)

ASSAULT (law) (assultus, from the Fr. asslayer); an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a corporeal hurt to another; as by striking at him, with or without a weapon. Assault does not always necessarily imply a hitting or blow; because, in trespass for assault and battery, a man may be found guilty of the assault, and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an assault. If a person in anger lift up or stretch forth his arm, and offer to strike another, or menace any one with any staff or weapon,