system thus established in France spread thence through the other countries of Europe. (See Daniel's Histoire de la Milice Française, &c.) With the progress of standing armies in France, and the increase of wealth, the standing armies of other countries increased also; e. g., those of Holland, England and Germany. When this increase arrives at its highest point, and the decision of war becomes almost entirely dependent on numbers, the duty of military service is extended to all the citizens, and a system of conscription is introduced, adapted to the condition, population and necessities of a state, by which all the citizens, of a certain age, capable of bearing arms, are called upon to do military duty, for a longer or shorter period. In this way, standing armies, and the military, considered as a separate profession, are, to a great degree, abolished, and, all the citizens (with few exceptions) able to bear arms being disciplined for the protection of their country, and obliged to act in its defence, the number of troops becomes proportionate to the natural relations of states to each other, and military discipline becomes more liberal and honorable. At least, this has been the case upon the European continent. The increase of the militia renders it also more difficult to give the proportion of the military power of some states to their population, because the standing army is no longer the sole, and, with some governments, not even the chief, military power. MalteBrun, in his Geography, estimates the proportion, in the principal states of Europe, as follows; though, for the reason just given, the estimate is necessarily imperfect:

would be found a proportion not injurious to the resources of the states. The U. States of America have now on foot not even 6442 men, to which number the army is limited by the law of 1821. The importance of militia is daily increasing. (For further information in regard to the militia, and the great changes which have taken place in standing armies during the last 20 years, see Militia and Army.)

ARNAOUTS, OF ALBANIANS; a people of mixed origin, probably the primitive inhabitants of Illyria and Macedonia, intermixed with Goths, Huns and Sclavonians, who have spread in the western part of Rumelia, along the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian seas, and have sent colonies to the Neapolitan and Sicilian coasts. Their language has not risen to the dignity of a written one. They call themselves Skypetars; by the Turks they are called Arnaouts. They are divided into several tribes, among whom the Suliotes (q. v.) are partly of Greek origin. Strong and warlike by nature, the Arnaouts were the best soldiers in the Turkish army. They are frank towards friends and superiors, but allow themselves, like all rude nations, every kind of artifice and perfidy towards their enemies. The oppression, under which they formerly lived, filled them with the desire of liberty. For arts and trades they have no inclination. Agriculture they esteem not so honorable an occupation as arms. Their restless spirit is averse to the uniformity of peace. Yet they are not acquainted with the higher tactics; they never form a line of battle, and do not understand the advantages of strong positions. Hence they are not so efficient against European armies as might be expected from their personal courage. They carry the choicest weapons. Upon their breast they wear a plate of silver, and their legs are covered with a kind of greaves; their hair is cut short in front, and hid by a red bonnet, drawn down to the eyebrows.-Albania, part of the Turkish province Arnaout Vilajetti, a mountainous, maritime country, but very well adapted to the cultivation of wine, fruit, cotton and tobacco, lying along the Adriatic and Ionian seas, is the true country of the Arnaouts.-The Montenegrins (q. v.) in the hills of Montenegro, wkom the Turks have not yet been able to vanquish, are distinguished among them. Among the principal towns, we may mention Janina (q. v.) and Scutari, with 12,000 inhabitants (not to be confounded

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with the city of the same name in Anatolia, over against Constantinople), both residences of pachas; also Durazzo, the old Dyrrhachium.

ARNATTO, OF ANNOTTA, is a red dyeing drug, generally imported in lumps, wrapped up in leaves, and produced from the pulp of the seed-vessels of a shrub (bixa orellana), which grows spontaneously in the East and West Indies. This shrub is usually about 7 or 8 feet high, and has heart-shaped and pointed leaves. The flowers, which have each 10 large, peachcolored petals, appear in loose clusters at the ends of the branches, and produce oblong, hairy pods. The seed-vessels of the arnatto shrub are, in appearance, somewhat like those of the chestnut. They each contain from 30 to 40 seeds, enveloped in a kind of pulp, of red color and unpleasant smell, not very unlike the paint called red-lead, when mixed with oil. In the West Indies, the method of extracting the pulp, and preparing it for sale, is to boil this, and the seeds which are mixed with it, in clear water, until the latter are perfectly extricated. They are then taken out, and the pulp is allowed to subside to the bottom of the water; this is drawn off, and the sediment is distributed into shallow vessels, and gradually dried in the shade, until it is sufficiently hard to be worked into lumps or masses for sale. Arnatto, though made in the West Indies, is an object of no great commercial importance; the demand not being sufficient to give much encouragement to its culture. It is now chiefly prepared by the Spaniards in South America, and for the purpose, especially, of mixing with chocolate, to which, in their opinion, it gives a pleasing color and great medical virtue, as well as an improved flavor. The principal consumption of arnatto depends upon painters and dyers; and it is supposed that Scott's nankeen dye is only arnatto dissolved in alkaline lye. This drug is sometimes used by the Dutch farmers to give a rich color to butter; and the double Gloucester, and several other kinds of cheese, are colored with it. The poor occasionally use it instead of saffron. In countries where the arnatto shrubs are found, the roots are employed by the inhabitants in broth, and answer all the purposes of the pulp, though in an inferior degree. The bark is occasionally manufactured into ropes; and the Indians use pieces of the wood to procure fire by friction.

ARNAUD, François-Thomas-Baculard

d'; a prolific French writer, born at Paris, 1718, where he studied with the Jesuits. In his youth, among other pieces, he wrote three tragedies, one of which, Coligny ou la St. Barthélémy, was published in 1740. Voltaire conceived an affection for him, and aided him with money and advice. Frederic II opened a correspondence with him, invited him, afterwards, to Berlin, received him kindly, called him his Ovid, and addressed a poem to him, which closed with these verses:

Déjà l'Apollon de la France
S'achemine à sa décadence;
Venez briller à votre tour.
Elevez-vous, s'il baisse encore;
Ainsi le couchant d'un beau jour
Promet une plus belle aurore.

France's Apollo, Voltaire, thought this comparison not very flattering to himself, and took his revenge by satirizing d'Arnaud's person and verses. At the end of a year, d'Arnaud left Berlin for Dresden, where he had received an appointment, and returned thence to his native country. During the reign of terror, he was imprisoned in a dungeon, and afterwards led a life of miserable poverty. Owing to his carelessness and extravagance, neither the aid of the government nor his own pen could preserve him from want. He died at Paris, in 1805, at the age of 86 years. His best works are, Epreuves du Sentiment, Délassements de l'Homme sensible, Loisirs utiles, and some others. His dramatic works are not esteemed. Only the Comte de Comminge, in 1790, had a short run on the stage. A part of his numerous poems appeared in 1751, in three volumes.

ARNAULD. From this old family of Auvergne, which belongs to the nobility de la robe et de l'épée, are here selected1. Antony A., an advocate at Paris, from 1580, a zealous defender of the cause of Henry IV, distinguished for several political pamphlets, and for his powerful and successful defence of the university of Paris against the Jesuits, in 1594. By this he drew on himself the hatred of the Jesuits, but remained, till his death, in 1618, in possession of his honors, and was esteemed the greatest lawyer of his time. twenty children formed the rallying point of the sect of Jansenists (see Jansenius) in France; the daughters and granddaughters as nuns, in Portroyal, the sons as members of the learned society, who shut themselves up in this monastery, and are known under the name of Messieurs du Port Royal. A son of his eldest

His

daughter, Isaac le Maître de Sacy, also united himself to this society, and, as translator of the Bible that appeared at Mons, played an important part in the history of Jansenism.-2. Robert Arnauld d'Andilly, oldest son of Antony, born at Port Royal, in 1588, died in 1674, made himself known as a very correct French writer, by his religious poems and tracts, and his translations of Josephus's History of the Jews, and of Davila's works. He was far surpassed in intellect by his youngest brother, 3. Antony Arnauld, the youngest child of the lawyer Antony Arnauld, born Feb. 6, 1612. Under the guidance of the abbot of St. Cyr, John du Vergier de Havranne, first head of the Jansenists in France, he devoted himself to theology, and was received, in 1643, among the doctors of the Sorbonne. In the same year, he attacked the Jesuits in two works, De la fréquente Communion, and La Théologie Morale des Jésuites, the first of which occasioned much controversy, because it applied the principles of the Jansenists to the receiving of the sacrament. He excited similar controversies by his work, De l'Autorité de St. Pierre et de St. Paul residente dans le Pape, 1645, by the opinion therein maintained, that the two apostles should be regarded as of equal rank, and as founders of the Roman Catholic church. After 1650, when Jansenism had become an object of public odium, and the watch word of an important party in the state, Arnauld engaged in all the quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy and the government, was their chief writer, and was considered their head. The intrigues of the court occasioned his exclusion from the Sorbonne, 1656, and the persecutions which compelled him to conceal himself. In his retirement, he wrote a system of logic on the principles of Descartes, and a Grammaire raisonnée, which were, for a long time, esteemed as school-books. After the reconciliation between pope Clement IX and the Jansenists, 1668, he appeared in public, and enjoyed the homage which even the court did not refuse to his merits and talents. To satisfy his love of controversy, he attacked the Calvinists in many controversial tracts, and, with his friend Nicole, composed the great work, La Perpétuité de la Foi de l'Église Cathol. touchant l'Eucharistie, in opposition to them. For this, a cardinal's hat was destined for him at Rome, but, as he scorned it, and as the court had become unfavorable to him, it was not conferred. On 33

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account of the new persecutions of the court, or rather of the Jesuits, he fled, in 1679, to the Netherlands, employed himself, in his exile, in controversial writings against the Calvinists and the Jesuits, and died, in want, at a village near Liege, Aug. 9, 1694. He was a man of a vigorous and consistent mind, full of solid knowledge and great thoughts; in his writings, bold and violent to bitterness; undaunted in danger, and of irreproachable morals. He is acknowledged to have done much for the improvement of morality in the Catholic church; yet would his genius have been far more useful to the church and to literature, had not his situation and character involved him in a multitude of controversies, which rendered his literary activity, for the most part, fruitless to posterity.

ARNAULT, Antoine Vincent, born at Paris, 1766, an esteemed dramatic poet, laid the foundation of his fame by his tragedy Marius à Minturnes, which was first performed at the theatre in 1791. Soon after appeared his Lucrèce. After the overthrow of the throne, Aug. 10, 1792, and the tragical scene of the 2d of September, he took refuge in England, and thence passed over to Brussels. At his return, he would have been arrested as an emigrant, but the committee declared the law not applicable to the learned author of Marius. He now wrote some operas and the tragedies Cincinnatus and Oscar. In 1797, he went to Italy, where general Bonaparte committed to him the organization of the government of the Ionian isles. At that time, he wrote, partly in Venice, his tragedy Blanche et MontCassin, ou les Vénitiens. In 1798, he embarked in the fleet for Egypt, but was obliged to remain in Malta, on account of the sickness of his brother-in-law, Regnaud de Saint Jean d'Angély. The frigate, in which he was returning to France, was taken by the English; yet A. gained his freedom, and went to Paris, where his tragedy Les Vénitiens was performed, in 1799. In the same year, he became a member, and, in 1805, president, of the national institute. In Sept. 1808, he was named counsellor and secretarygeneral of the university, which offices he retained till 1814. As such, he took part in the preparation of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie. He also drew up for the emperor the general report concerning the decennial prizes. After the abdication of the emperor, he went to meet the king at Compiegne, but, in the year 1815, lost all his offices, which Napoleon restored

to him during the "hundred days." He was then member of the deputation from the chamber of deputies to the army. The decree of the king of the 24th July banished him to the distance of twenty leagues from Paris. In consequence of the decree of Jan. 17, 1816, he found himself compelled to fly, and now resided sometimes in Belgium, sometimes in Holland. His four years' banishment, and his exclusion from the national institute, arose, perhaps, from the erroneous supposition, that he had been one of the editors and contributors to the journal Le Nain jaune. His tragedy Germanicus (translated into German, also twice into Italian) was performed, in 1817, in the Théâtre Français, at Paris, to a very full house, and occasioned great disturbance in the theatre, as the opposite political parties made it the occasion for the clamorous expression of their opinions. The design of effecting the recall of the author from banishment, by the representation of this piece, was disappointed, and it was not repeated. A collection of his works appeared, in 1818, at Brussels, in 6 vols., and a new collection at Paris, 1824. In Nov. 1819, he obtained permission to return to France; his pension was also renewed. He has not yet been restored to his seat in the institute. Among his works are several speeches and treatises, of the year 1804, on the system of public instruction. He has also written fables (1812; new edition, 1815), and a comedy (La Rançon de Duguesclin, 1813). His latest tragedies are, Les Guelfes et les Gibelins, Lycurgue, and Guillaume I, 1826, in which the character of Philip II is very well drawn. He has also taken part in several periodicals, especially in the Veillées des Muses, 1797; in the Mercure, 1815; and in the Libéral, at Brussels, from 1816 to 1820, in which most of the articles on morality, literature and philosophy were written by him. He was one of the editors of the Miroir des Spectacles, des Lettres, des Mœurs et des Arts. As such, he was obliged to defend himself, in 1821, before the police correctionnelle, at Paris, because some of the articles were considered to have a political bearing, but was entirely acquitted, as were also the other editors. With Jouy, Jay and Norvins, he has undertaken, on an excellent plan, the Biographie nouvelle des Contemporains. He has also written Vie Politique et Militaire de Napoléon (with plates). Napoleon remembered him in his will, and bequeathed him a legacy of 100,000 francs. Of his sons, the eldest, Lucien Émile, former

prefect of the department of Ardèche, has also gained celebrity as a tragic poet, particularly by his Régulus, 1819. An earlier production, Pertinax, published under his name, was written by his father.

ARND, John; a Lutheran minister, distinguished for piety. He is the author of a work, which has been translated into almost every language of Europe, and has been extensively read in Germany for 200 years. Its title is, True Christianity (Wahres Christenthum). A. was born, in 1555, at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, and died, in 1621, at Celle, after he had been a minister in different places, and suffered from the Calvinists, and even the Lutherans. A few hours before his death, he preached from the text, Psalm cxxvi., "They who sow in tears shall reap in joy," and, on arriving at his house, spoke of his discourse as a funeral sermon. His work above mentioned has been reprinted since his death, in 1777, by Feddersen, and in 1816, by Sintenis.

ARNDT, Ernst Moritz; a German author, who contributed towards the liberation of Germany from the dominion of the French, by his bold and patriotic writings. He was born in Pomerania, and, in 1806, was professor of philosophy at Greifswald. At first, he was an admirer of Napoleon, though moderate in his praises, but became his most decided enemy, when he discovered his views of conquest. A. was obliged to fly to Sweden, from whence he returned to Germany, when it threw off the French yoke. At this time, he wrote a number of pamphlets and poems, all intended to inflame the hatred of his countrymen against the French. These writings are distinguished by patriotic, but often overstrained sentiments, and, at the same time, by confused notions of politics, liberty, German nationality, and the old German empire. The liberality of his sentiments afterwards involved him in the famous demagogic inquisitions in Prussia, when he was professor of the university of Bonn. How unwisely the Prussian government conducted, in its political prosecutions, is shown by its treatment of A. From a man of such vague notions on politics, no danger was to be feared. A. has written much on history. He is a man of uncommon talents, but no politician.

ARNE, Thomas Augustin, whom the English consider as one of their first composers. He was born at London, in 1704, the son of a respectable upholsterer, and received the first part of his education at Eton. He was intended for the

study of the law, but a strong inclination led him to devote himself to music, and he secretly carried an old spinet into the garret of his father's house, in order to pursue his favorite occupation. For a long time, he was obliged to keep it secret, but his father was finally induced to yield to his wishes, after he had made great progress in the art. Discovering that his sister had a fine voice and a great fondness for music, he prevailed on her to choose the profession of a singer. He composed a part for her in his first opera, Rosamond, after the text of Addison, which was performed, in 1733, at Lincoln's-Inn fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed Fielding's comic opera, Tom Thumb, or the Tragedy of Tragedies. His style in the Comus, 1738, is still more original and cultivated. The public was delighted with his lively, cheerful and natural melodies, and with the truth and simplicity of his expression. In 1740, he married Cecilia Young, an excellent singer, educated in the Italian school. They went, in 1742, to Ireland, where they were well received. After two years, he was engaged as a composer, and his wife as a singer, at the Drury lane theatre, in London. He composed several songs in 1745, for the Vauxhall concerts. After having composed two oratorios, and several operas, one of which was called Eliza, and having received the title of doctor of music, at Oxford, he attempted a composition in the Italian style (Metastasio's Artaserse), which was very popular. His talents, however, were better adapted to the simple, lovely and soft, than to the grave and elevated. He composed, also, several of the songs in Shakspeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music. He died in 1778. His sister was afterwards a distinguished singer under the name of Mrs. Cibber: his brother, also, went on the stage.

ARNO (anciently Arnus); one of the largest and finest rivers of Italy, which divides Tuscany into two parts, and washes Florence and Pisa. The A. rises in the Apennines, on the east of Florence, near a village called S. Maria della Grazia, on the borders of Romagna, 15 miles W. of the sources of the Tiber; it then turns southward towards Arezzo, where it is increased by the lakes of the Chiana; after which it runs westward, dividing Florence into two parts, and, at length, washing Pisa, falls, 4 miles below it, into the Tuscan sea. This river has been sung by many poets, on account of the

beautiful banks between which it meanders, and the cities with which they are adorned. From any hill in the neighborhood of Florence, or at the confluence of the Chiana, the view into the valley of the A. is charming. In ancient times, the Etruscans erected here extensive works of hydraulic architecture, long before any other Italian nation had arrived at such a degree of civilization. Niebuhr, in his Roman History, division Tuscans and Etruscans, says as follows:-"The greatest part of Tuscany is mountainous. The rich valley, through which the Arno flows, was, in ancient times, covered by a lake and marshes. From Segna to Fiesole, and toward Prato, was one lake: the Gonfalina closed up the valley: a passage was made through this rock, to open a way for the river towards Pisa. The water covered this space at the time of the erection of the walls of Fiesole, as is shown by many openings which were designed for draining it off. It covered the site of modern Florence, whose origin, it is, therefore, absurd to refer to the Etruscan times. A section was also cut at La'ncisa (the cut), to drain the rich fields of the upper valley of the Arno; or it may be that the rivers, which now form this part of the Arno, formerly fell into the Clanis, and the object was, to diminish the water of the Tiber. The marshes through which Hannibal marched are, at present, dry on the right bank of the Lower Arno." In the time of Napoleon, the A. gave its name to an extensive and populous department in the grand empire; Florence being the capital. The population amounted to about 600,000.

ARNOBIUS the Elder, called, also, the African, was, about A. D. 300, teacher of rhetoric, at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, and, in 303, became a Christian. While yet a catechumen, he wrote 7 books of Disputationes adversus Gentes, in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against Christianity with spirit and learning. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology. Hence it is one of the writings of the Latin fathers, which, like the works of his disciple Lactantius, are particularly valued by philologists. Orelli has published the last and best edition (Leipsic, 1816). From the younger A., a Gallic divine, in the last half of the 5th century, we have only an insignificant commentary on the Psalms, which betrays the principles of the Semi Pelagians.