zeiger (New Literary Informer); also, Decisions of the Courts of Love, and a History of the Jews in Bavaria, 1803; Oldest Traditions respecting the Birth of Charlemagne, 1803; Memoir on the History of the Divining Rod, 1807; the Earliest Consequences of the Art of Printing, exhibited in the History of the World, 1809; Historical and Literary Memoirs (Beiträge), particularly from the Treasures of the Library at Munich, 7 vols. ; Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Mnemonics, 1810; Historical Literature of Bavaria, 1810; Information on the History of Bavaria, from hitherto unused, and mostly foreign Sources, 1811; Annals of the Administration of Justice in Bavaria, 1813 and 1818; History of the 13th Article of the Act of the German Confederation; and many other works on the politics and literature of Bavaria. One of his works excited a long and violent contest between the learned men of Munich, at the end of which A., by order of the king, laid down his former offices, and, in 1811, went to Neuburg, as first director of the court of appeal; in 1813, he became vice-president. His pamphlet, Saxony and Prussia (in favor of Saxony), excited uncommon attention, and drew upon him much persecution. In 1819, he was chosen member of the chamber of deputies in the Bavarian diet, and was one of the most influential men in the assembly. In the same year, he became a member of the society for collecting the ancient history of Germany. He died, Dec. 24, 1824, at Munich, in the office of president of the court of appeal in the circle of Regen.-His brother, Adam, has also held high offices under the government, and has published several works, but not under his name. Most of these relate to the fine arts. He has one of the largest collections of engravings, and some masterly paintings.

ARETINO, Guido, or Gui; a Benedictine monk of the 11th century, born at Arezzo. He is said to have first reduced the science of music to a fixed system, and to have been the inventor of the monosyllables of the solfeggio,—ut, re, mi, fa, so, la,-drawn from the words of a Latin hymn. It is far from improbable, that Aretino was merely the restorer of the true principle of the ancient Greek music, with which, in the course of his studies, he became acquainted, through sources which have escaped modern research. It is unnecessary to add, that the monosyllable si, whence the modern scales of the two modes, major and minor, is a later

invention.-The syllables ut, re, mi, &c., are taken from a hymn of St. John, composed by Paul, in 770:

Ut queant laxis Re sonare fibris Mi ra gestorum Fa muli tuorum, So Ive pollutis La biis reatum. ARETINO, Leonard; a very learned Italian historian, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, in 1370. At the period of the revival of learning, he was a very distinguished scholar, and, being chosen secretary to the republic of Florence, amassed a large fortune. He died in that capital, highly respected, in the year 1443. He translated Aristotle's Ethics and Politics, and Plutarch's Lives, into elegant Latin. His original works are also in Latin, amongst which a History of Florence (folio, 1476), On Studies and Letters (1642), Epistles (republished in 1741, 8vo.), with his life by Melius, are particularly esteemed.

ARETINO, Pietro, one of the most famous Italian authors of the 16th century, who was indebted for the greatest part of his fame to the licentiousness of his pen. He was born at Arezzo, 1492, the natural son of a nobleman, whose name he never bore (for the name A. is expressive of his birth-place), and, from a bookbinder's apprentice, became an author, who soon gained the favor of kings. He was, indeed, called their scourge, but he was profuse in his adulation to them. He had warm admirers, notwithstanding the malignity and severity of his satires. Notwithstanding his ostentatious pride and bitterness, he submitted to such treatment as men never practise except against the contemptible and despised. Although he was so licentious a writer, that his very name is expressive of indecency and profligacy, he wrote many works of devotion, and gave the preference to the latter, if his own interest required it. His reputation gained for him the name of divine, by which even Michael Angelo addressed him; and his ostentation led him to adopt the name as his title. He caused medals, therefore, to be struck for him, with the inscription, Divus Petrus Aretinus, flagellum principum, and presented them to several princes. Being banished from Arezzo, on account of a sonnet against indulgences, he went to Perugia, and thence to Rome, where he entered into the service of Leo X, and afterwards of Adrian VI. On account of the 16 indecent sonnets, which he composed as illustrations of as many designs of Giulio Romano, he was obliged to leave Rome. Giovanni de' Medici invited him to his court, and took him to Milan, where

he found an opportunity to insinuate himself into the favor of Francis I. After having again visited Rome, he returned to his protector, Giovanni de' Medici, who grew more and more attached to him, and died in his arms of his wounds. In 1528, A. went to Venice, where he acquired powerful friends, among whom was the bishop of Vicenza, who reconciled the pope to him, and recommended him to Charles V so strongly, that he was presented by him with a golden chain. Francis I, wishing to be equally generous, gave him a similar chain. But when Charles afterwards settled on him a pension of 200 dollars, which liberality Francis did not equal, the former alone received all the encomiums which he had formerly divided between them both. The duke of Leve also gave him a considerable pension. He gained, besides, according to his own assertion, 1000 dollars in gold, every year, by his writings, together with a ream of paper and a flask of ink. Nicolo Franco, as licentious an author, though not so learned, aided him in his labors. A.'s fame was extended to such a degree, that he received letters from all parts of Italy, and his company was much sought. By his devotional writings, he regained the favor of the Roman court, and Julius III, who was also from Arezzo, was so pleased with a sonnet addressed to him by his countryman, that he sent him 1000 crowns of gold, and made him knight of St. Peter. Three years afterwards, he was introduced, by the duke of Urbino, to the pope, who received him not only with honor, but even with tenderness. Yet he could not obtain the dignity of cardinal, for which he made very great exertions. The nature of his death corresponded to his life. He had some sisters at Venice, who equalled their brother in licentiousness. As a person was one day relating to him one of their adventures, he was so amused that he burst into a fit of laughter, and, losing his balance, fell to the ground, and died soon after, in 1556, aged 65. He had received from nature a happy constitution. He was born with a taste for the arts, and practised several with success. But, above every thing else, he loved money, a good table, and handsome women.-His works consist of several religious compositions; 5 comedies and a tragedy, the former full of wit and genuine comic humor, the latter not without merit; the licentious Ragionamenti, and Puttana errante; 16 profligate Sonetti lussuriosi, several pieces in rhyme,

stanze, capitoli, partly laudatory, and partly licentious and satirical: some unfinished epics complete the list. The academicians of la Crusca counted A. among the classic authors of the nation. He deserved this honor less, however, for the purity than for the boldness, skill and originality of his style.

AREZZO (anciently Aretium); a city in Tuscany, seated on the declivity of a mountain, in the middle of a fruitful plain, 17 miles from Città di Castello, and lying between it and Florence. It had gone almost entirely to decay before Cosmo de' Medici took it under his protection. A. is the birth-place of Mæcenas, Petrarch and Pietro Aretino. It contains now about 8000 inhabitants.

ARGAL; crude tartar, in the state in which it is taken out of empty winevessels.

ARGALI (ovis ammon); mountain, or wild sheep. This animal is regarded with propriety as the savage stock whence the endless varieties of domestic sheep are descended; though it is difficult, from an inspection of the A., to conceive how so wild and energetic an animal could, by any management, be converted into the imbecile and helpless creatures of which our flocks are composed.-In size, the A. equals the common deer, and in port and bearing resembles the wild goat, though his huge, laterally-twisted horns give his head a very marked similarity to that of the common ram. These horns are very large, arise near the eyes, curve first backwards and then forwards, and have the points directed forwards and outwards; from their base, they are transversely waved or wrinkled for half their length, the remainder being nearly smooth. The horns of the female are more like those of the common goat, rising directly upwards, and curving gently backwards, especially towards the extremity. In summer, the A. is covered with harsh and rather short hair, generally of a grayish-yellow, having a blackish or reddish stripe along the back, and a large spot of the same color on the rump. The inferior parts of the body, and inside of the thighs, are of a pale reddish-white; in winter, the color is a deeper red, with a greater whiteness about the muzzle, throat and belly.-The mountain sheep is found in considerable numbers on the elevated ranges of northern Asia, in the deserts or steppes of Siberia, the mountains of California, and the Rocky mountain range of America. They live in herds or families, consisting of a male with the females and

young, and seek their food on the lofty elevations, covered only with lichens or small shrubs. They are shy and fearful, and, when disturbed, retreat with a swiftness and agility which renders pursuit hopeless, as they bound from rock to rock with security, and are soon lost to sight. It is by stealing upon them against the wind, or lying in ambush near where they must pass, that the hunter is enabled to make them his prey. In the spring of the year, when under the influence of sexual excitement, the males acquire a warlike disposition, which induces severe and obstinate combats for the possession of the females.-The A. was first satisfactorily made known as an inhabitant of America by the expedition of Lewis and Clarke, who brought the skins of a male and female from the Rocky mountains, which are still preserved in the Philadelphia museum. The A. had been previously indicated as an inhabitant of California by Veregas. The species is called bighorn by the Indians and traders. The Indians make various domestic utensils of these large horns, and apply their skins to the same purpose as those of the deer. -The domestication of the sheep is coeval with the infancy of the human family; and it is not, therefore, surprising, that the domesticated breeds should differ so materially from the parent stock, when we know what can be accomplished by cross-breeding, even during the life of a single man. When domesticated softfleeced sheep are taken to warm climates, this fleece is speedily shed, as we have repeatedly witnessed, and a coarse, reddish hair takes its place. In this condition, the resemblance of the animal to the A. becomes very striking.

ARGAND LAMP. (See Lamp.)

ARGENS (Jean Baptiste), marquis d'; born, 1704, at Aix. He was designed for the law, but, following his inclination, entered into the military service at the age of 15. His passion for Sylvia, an actress, induced him to leave the service, and France also, to be with her in Spain. But he was arrested, brought back to Provence, and sent to Constantinople with the French ambassador. His residence in Turkey was marked with adventures. After his return, he entered the army again. In 1734, at the siege of Kehl, he was wounded, and afterwards, before Philipsburg, rendered incapable of further service by a fall from his horse. Disinherited by his father, he became an author, and went to Holland, that he might write with more freedom. Here he published his

Lettres Juives, Lettres Chinoises, and Lettres Cabalistiques. Frederic II, then crown-prince, wished to become acquainted with the author, and receive a visit from him. He replied, that he should be in danger from Frederic William I, with his six feet six (this king being in the habit of compelling tall men to join his regiment of grenadiers). After the death of the king, Frederic again invited him. D'A. appeared in Potsdam, received the place of chamberlain, and that of director of the fine arts, in the academy, and became the king's daily companion, who loved him for his frankness, but ridiculed his melancholy humor. When almost 60 years old, he fell in love with the actress Cochois, and married her without the knowledge of Frederic, who never wholly pardoned him for this act of rashness. After the seven years' war, being on a journey to France, the second since his residence in Prussia, to visit his family, he found, by the way, a forged ordinance of the archbishop of Aix, in which he was excommunicated as a blaspheiner. This paper, at first, made him very melancholy, till he perceived the source of it, by the signature, in which Frederic had, by mistake, written bishop, instead of archbishop. After his return, he was obliged to bear, more than ever, the king's satirical humor. He afterwards received permission to take a journey into Provence, where he died, in 1771. Frederic II caused a monument to be erected to him, in the church of the Minorites, in Aix.-His numerous writings, the fruits of an unrestrained freedom of thought, once had some reputation, but now, though instructive, are no longer esteemed, because they are deficient in purity, taste, critical discernment and sound views.

ARGENSON (de Voyer), marquis d'; born at Paris, 1771; son of the lieutenant-gen-. eral d'Argenson, and descended from one of the most distinguished families in the service of the state. His great-grandfather was lieutenant of the police; his grandfather, a long time, minister of war. His great uncle, minister of foreign affairs, was the friend of Voltaire, and a philosopher, as well as a politician. This appears from his Considérations sur le Gouvernement, complimented by Rousseau in his Contrat Social. The courtiers of Louis XV called him d'Argenson la bête. He wrote, in two vols., Loisirs d'un Ministre. His son, the marquis de Paulmi, was governor of the arsenal, after having been ambassador to Venice and Poland.

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He left at his death the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, containing 150,000 volumes, which was subsequently purchased by the count d'Artois. The marquis de Paulmi published, in 80 vols., Mélanges Extraits d'une Grande Bibliothèque, in which he exhibited an accurate personal acquaintance with the treasures of the library. The present member of the chamber of deputies was studying at Strasburg, at the time of the king's flight to Varennes, and immediately entered into the military service of his country, as the aide-decamp of Lafayette. When Lafayette was obliged to flee from France, d'A. retired to his estates, married the widow of the prince Victor de Broglio, mother of the duke de Broglio, peer of France, and occupied himself in the education of his children, and in agriculture, in Poitou, where he was a friend to the poor, and an example of agricultural industry. As president of the electoral college of the department of Vienne, in 1803, he neglected to send a deputation with congratulations to the emperor. In 1804, he was again chosen, and made a member of the deputation to the emperor. This occasioned his appointment as prefect of the department of deux-Nèthes, where he distinguished himself by detending the constitutional administration, and gave in his resignation when he saw himself unsupported by the ministry. After Louis XVIII ascended the throne, he was appointed prefect of the department of the Bouches-du-Rhone. He refused the station, however, because France had no constitution. Being chosen into the chamber of deputies, in 1815, he signed a protest in July of the same year, when the foreign troops in Paris closed the entrance to the chamber. In the electoral college of Vienne, he declared the power of the people to modify the constitution an inalienable right, before he took the oath prescribed by law. In 1815, he opposed the measures of the ministry, which they declared necessary for the public security. In 1816 and 1817, he opposed several projects of the government, and maintained that the church, and other establishments of public utility, should be supported by the community, and not by the state, and that no arbitrary departure from the laws was necessary. In 1818, he defended the position, that the charter was, in fact, a limitation of the rights of the nation, and not a concession. He always spoke, with the liberal party, in favor of institutions of general utility, and against all exclusive privileges. He

maintained the dangers of a privileged clergy in France, and the necessity of the free importation of corn: he called the opposite a premium for rich, ignorant or idle landlords. In 1819 and 1820, he defended the principles of the general good, in the debates on the new laws.

ARGENT (French for silver, from the Latin argentum); a word used in heraldry, and in several terms of art employed by the goldsmiths.

ARGENTEUS, CODEX; a MS. copy of the four Gospels, so named from its silver letters. It is preserved in the university of Upsal, and is a copy from the Gothic version of bishop Ulphilas, who lived in the 4th century. It is in quarto, written on vellum, stained with a violet color. On this ground the letters, all uncial, or capitals, are painted in silver, except the initial letters, which are in gold. This MS. was discovered, in 1597, in the Benedictine abbey of Werden, in Westphalia, and, after several changes of owners, was sent, as a present, to Christina, queen of Sweden. Vossius, a Dutchman, either received it from her, or stole it. Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie bought it, at Vossius' death, for £250, and sent it to Upsal. Three editions of it have been given to the public; at Dort, 1655; Stockholm, 1672; the Clarendon press, 1750.— Some fragments of the Gothic version of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans were discovered by Knittel, in 1756, in a codex rescriptus, in the ducal library of Wolfenbüttel. It seems to have been written in the 6th century; and Angelo Maio (q. v.) lately discovered fragments of the MæsoGothic translation of the Epistles of St. Paul, made by Ulphilas; also a codex rescriptus. These discoveries are interesting additions to the above-mentioned codex.

ARGENTIERA, or KIMOLI (the ancient Cimolus); a small island in the Archipelago, which belonged to the government of the capudan pacha. It is rocky and sterile. The inhabitants (Greeks) live in one village, and are very poor. Formerly, silver mines were worked here, whence its name. The whole island is covered with a sort of chalk, called Cimolian earth, which is used in the washing and bleaching of linen. Lon. 24° 42 E.; lat. 36° 47 N.

ARGIPHONTES. (See Argus.)

ARGIVES. (See Argolis and Argos.)
ARGO. (See Argonauts.)

ARGOLIS; the eastern region of Peloponnesus; bounded N. by Achaia and Corinth; N. E. by the Saronic gulf; W. by Arcadia; S. by Laconia, and S. W. by

the Argolic gulf. The Greeks inhabiting it were often called, by the ancient authors, Argives and Argians. Hills and mountains alternate with fruitful plains and valleys. According to the monuments of Greek mythology, A. was peculiarly rich, and early cultivated. Inachus, about 1800, and Danaus, about 1500 years B. C., came hither with colonists from Egypt. Here reigned Pelops, an emigrant from Asia Minor, from whom the peninsula derives its name. Here, too, was afterwards the seat of government of Atreus and Agamemnon, Adrastus, Eurystheus, Diomedes. Here Hercules was born. In the morass of A. he slew the Lernæan hydra, and, in the cave of Nemea, subdued the ferocious lion. In the earliest times, it was divided into the small kingdoms of Argos, Mycenae, Tirinthus, Trozene, Hermione and Epidaurus, which afterwards formed free states. The chief city, Argos, has retained its name since 1800 B. C. Its inhabitants were renowned for their love of the fine arts, particularly of music. Here, and in Delphi, statues were erected to the brothers Biton and Cleobis, who fell victims to their filial piety. In 1825, a high school and a monitorial school were established at Argos. Near this city lies Napoli di Romania (q. v.), the ancient Nauplia, with an excellent harbor, and the most important fortress of the peninsula. On the site of the present village Castri, on the Ægean sea, formerly lay the city Hermione, with a grove dedicated to the Graces; opposite is the island of Hydra (q. v.) Near the city of Epidaurus, the watering-place of ancient Greece, on the Egean sea, Esculapius (q. v.) had his temple. At Træzene, now the village Damala, Theseus was born.

ARGONAUTS; those heroes of ancient Greece who performed a hazardous journey, through unexplored seas, to Colchis, in quest of the golden fleece. Eson, king of Iolcos, in Thessaly, enfeebled by age, had abdicated the throne in favor of his son, Jason, and appointed his brotherin-law, Pelias, to administer the government during his son's minority. At the time fixed, Jason appeared to demand his father's kingdom. Pelias, apparently ready to resign the throne, required of him first to bring from Colchis the golden fleece of the ram, on which Phryxus and Helle (q. v., under Athamas) had escaped the persecutions of their step-mother, Ino; for Phryxus, having sacrificed the ram, had hung up the fleece in a consecrated grove at Colchis. The ambitious youth,

unconscious of the treacherous nature of the proposal, engaged to accomplish the adventure; and the most valiant heroes of Greece took part with him. Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Admetus, Neleus, Meleager, Orpheus, Telamon, Theseus and his friend Pirithous, Hylas, and many others. They sailed with favorable winds, from the promontory of Magnesia, in a vessel called the Argo, built at the foot of mount Pelion, in Thessaly, superior to all ships previously built in size and equipment. Tiphys, skilled in navigation, managed the rudder, and the sharp-sighted Lynceus explored the seas for the place of their destination. Orpheus elevated the courage of his companions, when danger threatened, by music and songs. When a tempest broke upon them, as he was initiated into the mysteries, he made vows, with the rest of his companions, to the Samothracian deities, upon which the storm was allayed; and, to show the interposition of the gods by a miracle, two stars appeared over the heads of the Dioscuri. (See Castor.) They happily reached the harbor of Lemnos, where they remained 2 years. The women of Lemnos, instigated by the angry Venus, offended with their husbands, and oppressed by their Thracian concubines, avenged themselves by the murder of their husbands, and detained among them the welcome strangers. At length they sailed to Samothrace, where, according to their vows, they caused themselves to be initiated into the mysteries there. Then they landed at Troas. Here Hylas rambled, and lost his way, and Hercules, who went in search of him, remaining too long on shore, the vessel sailed without them. Telamon, also, left them here. Thence they went to the city of Cyzicus, where the king received them hospitably. But at night, being forced back by a storm, they were taken for enemies; a contest followed, in which Jason slew the king, in consequence of which Rhea, the guardian goddess of the island, detained the Argo by magic. Having appeased the angry deity, they sailed to the east, and landed at Bebrycia. Driven by a storm to the shores of Thrace, the Argonauts sailed thence to Salmydessa, where the blind soothsayer, Phineus, was king. Phineus gave the strangers directions, and a guide to conduct them through the Cyanæan rocks, which, driven furiously against each other by the winds, dashed in pieces vessels passing through them. Having arrived at the rocks, in compliance with the advice of Phineus, they