348 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE-ARCHIVES. in the 12th century, a German architect, named William (Guglielmo), and, in the 13th, Jacob, with the surname Capo, who died in 1262, and his pupil or son, Arnolf, are mentioned as having built churches and convents in Florence. The modern Gothic style passed from the churches and abbeys to the castles, palaces, bridges and city gates, many of which were built in this manner; e. g., in Milan, 16 city gates of marble, and several new palaces; in Padua, 7 bridges, and 3 new palaces; in Genoa, 2 docks and a splendid aqueduct; and the town of Asti, in 1280, almost entirely. Architecture was continually improving in Italy, particularly in the 14th century. Galeazzo Visconti finished the great bridge at Pavia, and built a palace which had not then its equal. About the same time, the famous cathedral of Milan was erected. The marquises of Este erected handsome edifices at Ferrara, and Albert the splendid palace at Belsiore. In Bologna, the great church of St. Petronius was begun, and, in Florence, the famous tower of the cathedral. The 15th century, in which the study of ancient architecture was revived, was greatly distinguished. The dukes of Ferrara, Borso and Ercole of Este, were active patrous of architecture. Duke Francesco en ellished Milan with the ducal palace, the castle Porta di Giove, the hospital and other edifices. Ludovico Sforza erected the buildings of the university at Pavia and the hospital of Milan. The popes adorned Rome, and Lorenzo de' Medici, Florence, with splendid buildings. The artists returned to the monuments of antiquity, and studied their beautiful forms and just proportions. The most illustrious architects of this time were Filippo Brunelleschi, who built, at Florence, the dome of the cathedral, the church S. Spirito, and the palace Pitti, besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro and Mantua; Battista Alberti, who wrote, at the same time, on architecture; Michelozzi Bramante, who commenced the building of St. Peter's; Michael Angelo Buonaotti, who erected its magnificent dome; and Giocondo, who built much in France, and afterwards directed, with Raphael, the building of the church of St. Peter's. These were followed by others, who proceeded in their spirit-Palladio, Scamozzi, Serlio, Barozzio, known by the name of Vignola. They are the founders of the existing taste in architecture. That, however, they studied their art in those works of antiquity which had already deviated from the early purity and elevated grandeur, is evident in their buildings, from the many curved and twisted ornaments, the circular, irregular and cut, pediments, the coupled columns, high pedestals, and other things, which were unknown to architecture at the time of Pericles. Thus a new period in architecture had begun in Italy. Italian masters, and young artists sent to Italy, introduced the Roman taste into foreign countries, which gradually supplanted the Gothic. Since that time, architecture has experienced different destinies in different countries. It has risen and declined at different periods; yet laudable attempts have been made, in recent times, to advance it to its true perfection, though we cannot affirm that they have succeeded every where.-In America, the pure Grecian architecture is gradually prevailing, either because this style is founded on plainer principles than the others, or because the Grecian really deserves to be called à republican style, since it is better adapted than the Gothic to small buildings, and does not require large and splendid edifices (a great number of which can never exist in a democracy), in order to display all its beauty. (For an account of modern architecture in different countries, see the respective articles.) ARCHIVES; a collection of written documents, containing the rignts, privileges, claims, treaties, constitutions, &c., of a family, corporation, community, city or kingdom; also, the place where such documents are kept. There are, accordingly, private and public or state archives. Archives were known among the most ancient people. The Israelites, Greeks and Romans had them in their temples, and the Christians, at first, preserved important manuscripts with the sacred vessels and relics, till proper places were assigned to them. Those governments which transact every thing by writing have, of course, much larger archives than others; thus the archives in every branch of government in Prussia and Austria are immense.-According to Wageinselius, the archives of the German empire contain very few documents before the time of the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg (who was elected in 1273), or even of the subsequent century. At the end of the 15th century, and at the beginning of the 16th, under Maximilian I, the archives of the empire received a new form, and have been preserved with great care. Some historians, (e. g., Schmidt, in his History of the Germans), have made the most diligent modern archives of Prussia are excellently arranged; probably none are so complete in respect to statistical matters. The English have been so careful in preserving their archives, that other European nations have often found documents highly important to themselves in London. In France, the archives were dispersed all over the country till the revolution, when, by law of Sept. 7, 1790, they were put in a common place of deposit, after a very large quantity of documents had been destroyed. This immense collection of public acts is now in the ancient hotel Soubise, au Marais, in Paris. The laws of Oct. 10, 1792, and Feb. 20, 1793, put the whole management of the archives on a systematic footing. In 1814, June 6, the archives of the navy and the war departments were organized, in order to preserve the historical documents, military memoirs, plans and maps, &c. The archives of the U. States are easily accessible, and proper recommendation will open them to any one who wants to use them for scientific purposes. ARCHONS; the highest magistrates in Athens. (See Attica.) The Jews, also, had archons in their captivity. ARCHYTAS of Tarentum; a famous Pythagorean, renowned as a truly wise man, a great mathematician, statesman and general. He devoted himself, at Metapontum, to the study of the Pythagorean philosophy. Being the contemporary of Plato (Olympiad 96; 400 B. C.), he must have lived a century later than Pythagoras, and was still alive when Plato travelled to Sicily. Hence he cannot be regarded as the instructer of Philolaus, who was older; and still less as the immediate scholar of Pythagoras. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and nechanical problems. He also constructed an automaton (a flying pigeon). Pernaps he was also the inventor of the categories in philosophy. It is, however, still undecided whether Aristotle's work on the ten categories is drawn from his work or forged. Horace mentions him, in one of his poems, as having been drowned on the coast of Apulia. ARCKENHOLZ, John, the historian, was born, 1695, in Swedish Finland, and died 1777, at Stockholm. He wrote Mémoires concernant Christine, Reine de la Suède, Amsterdam, 1751-60, 4 vols. 4to. ARÇON, Jean Claude Éléonore d', inventor of the floating batteries for the 30 VOL. I. attack of Gibraltar, born, 1732, at Pontarlier, was designed for the church, but his father, a lawyer, yielded to the decided inclination of his son for military science. He was received into the military school at Mézières, 1754, and, the following year, into the corps of engineers. In the seven years' war, he highly distinguished himself, particularly at the defence of Cassel, in 1761. In 1774, he was employed in drawing a map of the Jura and the Vosges, and, to expedite the labor, he invented a new mode of shading, much superior to the common one. He was gifted with an inventive imagination and an unwearied activity. He wrote much, and in all his writings, which are read with pleasure in spite of their incorrect style, we find a richness of ideas, and traces of a splendid genius. In 1780, he invented the floating batteries. The jealousy and disunion of the French and Spanish generals alone prevented the event from answering his expectation. Elliot, who directed the defence of Gibraltar, did full justice to the inventor.At the invasion of Holland, under Dumouriez, he took several places, including Breda. He then went into retirement, where he wrote his last and best work, the result of all the rest,-Considérations Militaires et Politiques sur les Fortifications, (Military and Political Considerations on Fortifications). The first consul placed him in the senate in 1799, and he died July 1, 1800. ARCONA; the most northern point of Germany (if Prussia Proper is not included therein); the north-eastern promontory of the island Rügen, in the parish Altenkirchen, upon the peninsula Wittow, consisting of chalk, flint and petrifactions. Here was formerly situated the old Vandal castle, with the chief temple of the god Swantewit, who was highly venerated by all the Sclavonians in North Germany, and whose worship king Woldemar I of Denmark put an end to, by capturing the castle, in 1168. The country is delightful and fertile. The shores are precipitous and abrupt, and very picturesque. In the vicinity of the old Herthasburg, in the holy grove of Hertha, may yet be seen the deep lake which served for ablutions and secret sacrifices. Travellers frequently visit the island, which, on account of its seclusion, abounds with old and marvellous tales. (See Rügen.) Lately, a light-house has been erected on the promontory of A. by the Prussian government. ARCOT; a large district of Hindostan. It was formerly independent, but, since 1802, it has been under the British dominion. The exports consist chiefly of arrack, pepper, palmirahs, received from Ceylon, Travancore and Prince of Wales's island. ARCOT (anciently Arcati, Regia Sora, and Soromandala); a city of Hindostan, capital of the Carnatic, on the Peliar, 57 miles W. S. W. of Madras; lon. 79° 29′ E.; lat. 12° 52′ N. The fort is a mile in circumference. The city is extensive, and manufactures coarse cotton cloth, Hyder Ali gained possession of it Sept. 30, 1780, after having defeated the English, who had possessed it since 1760. ARCTIC; an epithet given to the north pole, or the pole raised above our horizon. It is called the arctic pole, on account of the constellation of the Little Bear, in Greek called apkтos, the last star in the tail whereof points out the north pole.Arctic circle is a lesser circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and 23° 28′ distant from the north pole, from whence its name. This and its opposite, the antarctic (q. v.), are called the two polar circles, and may be conceived to be described by the motion of the poles of the ecliptic round the poles of the equator, or of the world. ARCTURUS; a fixed star of the first magnitude, in the constellation of Arctophylax or Boötes. ARCTUS (Greek, OKтos); a name given by the Greeks to 2 constellations, called, by the Latins, Ursa (major and minor), and by us, the Bear (great and little). ARCUATION; the method of raising, by layers, such trees as cannot be raised from seed. The process consists in bending to the ground the branches which spring from the offsets or stools, after they are planted. Arcuation is based on this principle in vegetable life, that the plant depends chiefly upon external influences, and that a part, which now has become a branch by the influence of air, may be easily turned into a root by the influence of the earth. In fact, alleys of trees have been made, which, after growing to a considerable size, have had the branches turned into the ground, and the roots towards the sky. The former, after a while, became roots, and the latter put forth foliage. In the animal kingdom, such great changes do not appear to take place; yet some parts may be turned into others. ARDECHE, département de l'; a department in the south of France, on the right bank of the Rhone. It contains 1836 square miles, and had, in 1828, a popula tion of 328,419. ARDENNES; a chain of mountains covered with woods, between the Meuse and the Moselle, in the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. In the time of the Romans, the wood of A. comprehended a large part of Gallia Belgica, and, according to Cæsar, extended from the Rhine, through the country of Treves, to the territory of the Remii. More than 20 rivers and brooks take their rise in it. The mines are no longer worked for iron, copper, and the precious metals. Sheep are raised here in considerable numbers, and the country affords much game.-The name A. is derived from the Celtic ar, in, and duanna, well of God.-In a wider sense, the mountains extending from the former French Hainault to the Moselle are called A.; whence, also, a department in the north-eastern part of France, containing about 2100 square miles and 281,624 inhabitants, the chief city of which, is Mézières, has the same name. ARDEY; the chain of mountains extending along the Ruhr, in the county of Mark, from Frödenberg to Volmarstein. It consists of rough sandstone, above which are masses of coal. This mineral is very important in this populous manufacturing region. The ruins of a castle, where the counts of Ardey dwelt in the 7th century, are still to be seen in this mountain. ARE; a superficial square measure in France, substituted for the former square rod. It consists of 1076.44 English square feet. The 10th part of an are is called a deciare, and the 100th a centiare. Decare is a surface of ten ares. AREA (from the Latin, in which it signified, first, a threshing-floor; later, a vacant place bounded on all sides, or before a public building); in geometry, the superficial contents of any figure; in geography, the contents of any surface. The amount of the oceanic area of our globe is 160,152,000 square miles; and of the different parts of the world as follows: From which it appears, that the surface of the land on our globe does not amount to the one fourth part of the entire superficies of the earth. Very interesting tables on the areas of the different zones, seas and countries, with valuable remarks on the same, have been given to the public in Mr. Darby's View of the U. States, historical, geographical and statistical; Philadelphia, 1828. The areas given above, as well as those which follow, are taken from his work. We should mention, however, that they are differently estimated by other writers. The torrid zone contains land in sq. miles. dukes of A. derive their name from this place. Maximilian II made this house princes, and Ferdinand III, in 1644, dukes. By marriage and inheritance, the dukes became very rich. The peace of Luneville deprived this house of large possessions, and bestowed on it, in return, a portion of Westphalia. The present duke of A., Prosper, lives in Vienna. He belonged to the confederation of the Rhine, but, in 1810, lost his sovereignty, by Napoleon's incorporating his dukedom with France and Berg. In 1808, he married a niece of the empress Josephine, Stephanie Tascher de la Pagerie, whom Napoleon elevated to the rank of a French 3,000,000 princess. In 1816, they were divorced. 1,000,000 Since 1815, the duke is, on account of 100,000 some of his mediatized possessions, a peer 5,000,000 (Standesherr) of the Westphalian estates 4,500,000 in Prussia, and, on account of other possessions, member of the house of lords in 13,600,000 Hanover. George IV, May 9, 1826, eleLand area of the southern temperate zone. vated the duke's possessions in Hanover Australasia, 1,400,000 (about 700 square miles, with 39,500 inAfrica, 640,000 habitants) to a dukedom, called Aremberg1,520,000 Meppen. The duke is also a grandee of Spain, of the first class. All the posses3,560,000 sions of the duke, in Germany, contain about 954 square miles, and 79,100 inhabitants. He has also large estates in France, and extensive tracts of forest in the Pyrenees. The ducal house is of the Asia, Australasia, Polynesia, or Oceanica, South and North America, . Total, South America, Total, . Land area of the northern temperate zone. Total, 900,000 North America, Greenland, &c. 2,600,000 3,520,000 Total, Land area in the southern polar circle, 200,000 But it is doubtful whether there are, in reality, 200,000 square miles of land within the antarctic circle. ARELAS, or ARELATUM; the present Arles; in ancient geography, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, situated on the Rhone. It was a favorite place of the Romans, and hence called Gallula Roma. A. was the chief city of the kingdom of Arelat or Arles, which consisted of the duchy of Burgundy, with Provence, and existed for a short time in the 9th century. (See Burgundy.) AREMBERG; a place with 490 inhabitants, in the mountains of the Eifel, near Cologne, now belonging to the Prussian grand-duchy of the Lower Rhine. The Catholic faith. ARENA. (See Amphitheatre.) ARENDT, Martin Frederic. This learned man, renowned for his scientific travels through a large part of Europe, was born at Altona, 1769, and died of the 1824. Being recommended by count de palsy, in the neighborhood of Venice, Reventlow, in 1797, he was appointed an éléve in the botanic garden at Copenhagen. But his predilection for the study of antiquities led him to the library of the university, where, in the most piercing cold, he spent whole hours in examining the collections of Arnamagna. He travelled, in 1798, to Finmark, under the royal patronage. He made accurate observations in Norway and other countries, which had been visited by no stranger before him. He was to have collected living plants and seeds, but he brought back little or nothing, and was therefore discharged. He began his antiquarian collections in Norway, 1799 and 1800. He then resided again in Sweden, in Rostock, in Paris, and in Venice. A part of his papers, drawings and treatises, all containing researches respecting northern antiquities, he deposited in the library at Copenhagen. He also published some separate treatises in Paris, and in various cities of Sweden, Germany and Denmark. Afterwards, he travelled through Switzerland, Spain, Italy and Hungary. He lived on the charity of strangers, and slept often in the open air, without suffering any inconvenience. He carried all his papers with him. The persecutions which he endured at Naples, on a suspicion of Carbonarism, contributed much to hasten his death. ARENS, or ARENSHADE; a district of Denmark, in the duchy of Sleswick, through which runs the famous wall called Danneuske, which Gottric, king of Denmark, built, in the 9th century, across the country from Hollingsted to the Sley (an extent of 46 miles), as a defence against the inroads of the Saxons and Slavi. The natives of A. were the first in the country who professed Christianity, and their church, built in 826, was demolished several times by the idolaters. AREOPAGUS; the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, and, at the same time, the most famous for its respectability, purity and love of justice. It obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the hill of Mars, near the citadel. The establishment of this court is ascribed, by some, to Cecrops, by others, to Solon; from the latter, however, it seems to have only received a better constitution and more important privileges. Of how many members it consisted, is not now known. A seat in it was held for life. The members were men who had formerly been archons, had rendered themselves worthy of this honor by the honest and diligent execution of their office, and whose character and conduct had been subjected to a particular examination. Aristides called the areopagus the most sacred tribunal of Greece; and Demosthenes assures us, that they never passed a sentence in which both parties did not concur. The crimes tried before this tribunal were wilful murder, poison, robbery, arson, dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the state and in religion; at the same time, they took care of helpless orphans. The other states of Greece, also, submitted their disputes to the judgment of the areopagus. Its meetings were held in the open air, and in the night time. After the investigation of a case, the votes were collected. Till the government of Pericles, this court of justice retained its purity inviolate; it was first encroached upon by his causing himself to be made a member, without having been archon. It retained its respectability, however, for a long time, but sunk, gradually, with the decline of Athens. AREQUIPA; a city of Peru, and capital of a province of the same name; 180 miles S. of Cuzco, 340 N. W. of La Plata; lon. 71° 48′ W.; lat. 16° 30′ S.; pop. stated from 24,000 to 40,000. It is situated in a fertile valley, and is elevated 7775 feet above the level of the sea. Behind the city rises 3 lofty mountains, one of which is called the volcano of Arequipa, or peak of Misté, and is one of the most elevated summits of the Andes. The houses are well built of stone, are vaulted, and are much decorated on the outside. It contains a cathedral, a college, an hospital, 3 nunneries, 6 convents, &c. It is subject to frequent earthquakes; but this evil seems to be overbalanced by the mildness of the climate, and the beauty and fertility of the country round about. Aranta is the port of A. ARES. (See Mars.) ARESKOUI, or AREOUSKI; the god of war among some of the American Indians. Arethusa. 1. One of the Hesperides. -2. A daughter of Nereus and Doris, first a nymph of Diana, then a famous fountain of the island Ortygia, which comprises a fourth part of the city of Syracuse. (Respecting her metamorphosis into a fountain, see Alpheus.) As Theocritus composed his idyls on her banks, she is often made the muse of pastorals. ARETIN (Christopher), baron of; born at Ingolstadt, December 2, 1772; studied at Heidelberg, under the then professor, now minister of justice, von Zentner, and afterwards at Göttingen and Paris. He was, at one time, involved in the affairs of the Illuminati. He early entered into the public service. In 1799 and 1800, he urged the abolishment of the feudal estates, and the assembling of the diet. In the contest of the Bavarian states with the government, in 1800 and 1801, he was very active as a writer. In 1803, after the abolition of the monasteries, he was appointed commissioner, by the government, to examine their libraries; in 1804, he was made vice-president of the academy of sciences; in 1806, chief director of the library of Munich, and, in 1807, secretary of the first class of the academy of sciences. He now published, with some other persons, from 1804 to 1806, a daily paper, the Aurora, and afterwards, as a continuation of the well known Leipziger Allgem. Liter. Anzeiger (Leipsic Universal Literary Informer), the Neuer Lit. An |