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every point, with the doctrines of the Calvinist church.-The Remonstrants have departed the most widely from the faith and order of the ancient Anabaptists. They reject all symbolical books, and permit the most unrestrained reading; hence they have among them many Socinians. They tolerate, in the bosom of the church, those of a different faith, and receive Christians of all creeds, but only in a few congregations without rebaptism. They consider the Pure and Mennonites as brethren; seldom exclude members, except from the sacrament, and this not so frequently as the latter parties; permit military service, and the discharge of civil offices, and even an oath of testimony, and prohibit only the oath of promise. They allow of learning, and have erected a seminary at Amsterdam for the education of ministers, to which young men of the Mennonite party are also admitted. In Holland, the Anabaptists obtained toleration under William I, and complete religious liberty in 1626. There are now in that country 131 churches, and 183 teachers of all the parties of Anabaptists, of whom the majority belong to the Remonstrants, about one third to the Mennonites, and a few small congregations to the Pure. The Anabaptists in Germany, where they are most numerous, on the banks of the Rhine, in East Prussia, Switzerland, Alsace and Lorraine, consider themselves proper Mennonites. In the religious worship of all these parties, there is but a trifling difference from the forms of the Protestant service; but they more nearly resemble the Calvinists than the Lutherans. The Pure have elders or bishops who administer the sacraments, ministers who preach, and deacons or almoners. All these officers are chosen by the vote of the churches. The Mennonites have ministers or deacons, of whom the former are the proper pastors, and the latter only exhorters or preachers; but both are chosen by the ecclesiastical council or presbytery. The Remonstrants pursue a similar course. In general, the Anabaptists still deserve the praise formerly bestowed upon them, of diligence, industry, order and purity of morals. Many of them, however, have become so accustomed to the manners of the world, that the peculiarities of this sect have gradually worn away, and the sect itself seems hastening to decay. The Baptists (q. v.) in England form a distinct sect, without any connexion with the successors of the ancient Anabaptists here described.

ANACHARSIS THE YOUNGER, a Scythian,

and brother of the king Saulus, was a lover of wisdom and of the sciences, and esteemed one of the seven wise men of Greece. The love of knowledge induced him to leave his barbarous country, and travel among the more civilized nations. In the time of Solon, he visited Athens, from whence he proceeded to other countries. After his return, the king put him to death, in order to prevent the introduction of the effeminate manners and worship of the Greeks, which was attempted by A. (See Voyage du jeune Anacharsis, par Barthélémi; see also the translation, Travels of Anacharsis the Younger.)

ANACHORETS, or ANCHORETS, in ecclesiastical history, were a celebrated class of religious persons, who generally passed their lives in cells, from which they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times, several of these individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, when their cells were called by the collective name of laura ; but they always lived personally separate. Thus the laura was distinguished from the cœnobium or convent, where the monks lived in society on a common stock; and the anachoret differed from a hermit, although his abode was frequently called a hermitage, inasmuch as the latter ranged at liberty, while the former rarely, and, in many instances, never, quitted his cell. But a convent was sometimes surrounded by a laura, to which the more devout or the more idle of the monks would ultimately retire. Paul the Hermit is said to have been the first person who devoted himself to this kind of solitude. In all ages and in all countries, retirement from the world has been considered as facilitating the attainment of a virtuous life, as adding strength to strong characters, and enabling the mind to follow out great ideas without interruption. The prophets prepared themselves in solitude for their tasks; the Pythagoreans, Stoics, Cynics and Platonists recommend the self-denial and the quiet happiness of the solitary sage. Vasari calls solitude the delight and school of great minds. In many parts of the East, where a sombre religion throws over life a melancholy shade, it has been thought, from time immemorial, a religious act to quit forever the busy world, and even to add bodily pain to the melancholy of solitude. This spirit, which still prevails in the East, passed over, with many other Ori

ental ideas, doctrines and customs, to the early Christians, and the state of the world, in the beginning of the Christian æra, was peculiarly fitted to favor its growth. The continual prevalence of bloody wars and civil commotions, at this period, must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and contemplative minds. Accordingly, we find, in the first centuries of our æra, very eminent and virtuous men among the anachorets, e. g., St. Augustin. This spirit, however, as might have been expected, soon led to fanatical excesses. All the horrid penances of the East were introduced among Christian hermits; and we find, at the close of the 4th century, Simeon Stylites passing 30 years on the top of a column, without ever descending from it, and finally dying there. Though we must needs pity such unhappy delusion, such a moral insanity, we cannot help acknowledging the strong power of will exhibited in this and many other instances of a similar kind. In fact, the spirit of retirement and self-torment raged like an epidemic among the early Christians in the East. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended with the Grecian philosophy, and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions of the East, the anachorets were most numerous; and from those who lived in cells, in the vicinity of a church (such as Moore describes in the Epicurean), the convents of a later period sprung, which were filled with inmates anxious to escape from the tumult and bloodshed, which marked the beginning of the middle ages. Early in the 7th century, the councils began to lay down rules for the order of anachorets. The Trullan canons say-"Those who affect to be anachorets shall first, for 3 years, be confined to a cell in a monastery; and if, after this, they profess that they persist, let them be examined by the bishop or abbot, let them live one year at large, and, if they still approve of their first choice, let them be confined to their cell, and not be permitted to go out of it but by the consent and after the benediction of the bishop, in case of great necessity." Frequently, at this period, the monks of various abbeys would select from among them a brother, who was thought to be most exemplary in his profession, and devote him to entire seclusion, as an honor, and to give him the greater opportunity of indulging his religious contemplations. In Fosbrook's Monachism, (4to., 1817), the ceremony by which an anachoret was consecrated to seclusion from the

world is described at length. The cells in which the anachorets lived were, according to some rules, only 12 feet square, of stone, with 3 windows. The door was locked upon the anachoret, and often walled up.

The cell which is said to have been occupied by St. Dunstan, at Glastonbury, was, according to Osborn, in his life of that monk, not more than 5 feet long, 2 feet broad, and barely the height of a man. Here the recluse passed his time in ingenious self-torture; e. g. in eternal silence, heavy chains, severe flagellations, singing psalms in cold water during winter nights, &c. Tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum! This species of devotion, originally introduced, as we have said, from the warm climate of the East, found many more adherents in the south of Europe than in the north. With the revival of science, and the consequent diffusion of more liberal views, the strictest kind of anachorets have almost entirely disappeared. Few men now retire to any seclusion more strict than that of a convent. Some persons, who pass a solitary life in the neighborhood of Rome, call themselves anchorites; but in India, the practice still prevails in all its severity.

ANACLETUS; two popes of this name. The first is said to have suffered death as a martyr, A. D. 91. All the other stories respecting him, e. g., that he divided Rome into 25 parishes, are uncertain.The second, the grandson of a baptized Jew, at first called Peter de Leon, was a monk in Clugny, a cardinal and papal legate in France and England, and, in 1130, competitor for the papal chair, against Innocent II. Rome, Milan and Sicily were on his side, and Roger of Sicily received from him the royal title. He also maintained himself against Lothaire II, and died 1138.

ANACOLUTHON, in grammar and rhetoric; a want of coherency. This often arises from want of attention on the part of an orator or author. Such an omission may proceed from passionate feeling, and the anacoluthon may then become a beauty. Many anacolutha are peculiar to certain languages.

ANACREON, whom the Greeks esteem one of their 9 greatest lyric poets, was born at Teos, in Ionia, and flourished about 500 B. C. Polycrates, king of Samos, invited him to his court, and bestowed on him his friendship. Here A. composed his songs, inspired by wine and love. After the death of his protector, he went to Athens, where he met with the most distinguished reception from

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Hipparchus. The fall of the latter drove him from Athens, and, probably, he returned to Teos. But when Ionia revolted from Darius, he fled to Abdera, where he passed a gay and happy old age, and died in his 85th year. According to tradition, he was choked by a grape-stone. The city of Teos put his likeness upon its coins; his statue was placed on the Acropolis, in Athens, and he was held in honor throughout Greece. Only a small part of his works has come down to us. Of 5 books, there are 68 poems remaining, under the name of A. Among these, criticism acknowledges but few as genuine. Those generally believed to be A.'s are models of delicate grace, simplicity and ease. The difficulty of attaining these excellences is proved by numberless unsuccessful imitations, unworthy of the name of Anacreontics. The measure in which A. composed his poems, and which is called after him, is commonly divided into 3 iambuses, with a cæsura. But, according to Hermann, it consists of the Ionic a majore, with the anacrusis:

Among the best editions are that of Fischer (Leipsic, 1793), and that of Brunck (Strasburg, 1786, last edition). The latest are that of Moebius, 1810, and that of Mehlhorn, 1825.

ANADYOMENE (Greek; she who comes forth); a name given to Venus, when she was represented as rising from the sea. Apelles painted her rising from the waves, and, according to some writers, Campaspe, the mistress of Alexander, according to others, the famous courtesan Phryne, served him as a model. Of the latter it is related, that she threw off her clothes, at a feast in honor of Neptune at Eleusis, in presence of many spectators, loosened her hair, and bathed in the sea, in order to give the painter a lively idea of the Venus Anadyōmene. In the reign of Augustus, this picture was brought to Rome. Antipater of Sidon, in the Anthology, and also other poets, have celebrated its beauty.

ANAGNOSTA, OF ANAGNOSTES, in antiquity; a kind of literary servant, whose chief business it was to read to his master during meals. They are first mentioned by Cicero. Atticus, according to Corn. Nepos, always had an anagnostes to read to him at supper. In many convents, one of the monks still reads aloud, while the others take their meal. Charlemagne, too, heard reading during dinner

and supper, generally on historical subjects.

ANAGOGY (from the Greek ava and yo); one of the various modes of interpreting the text of the Bible.-To explain anagogically means, to apply the literal sense of the text to heavenly things; for instance, to treat the Sabbath as a symbol of the rest in heaven. Of such explanations, frequent use was made in earlier times, particularly in sermons and religious books. The bride and the bridegroom, in Solomon's Song, were and are often still referred to Christ as the bridegroom, and to his church as the bride; and the application of this figure was frequently carried to an indelicate extreme. Even now, such extravagances of a disordered imagination seem to be favored, in many places, by the spirit of mysticism.-Anagogy, in medicine, signifies the return of humors, or the rejection of blood from the lungs by the mouth.

ANAGRAM (from the Greek ava and rouuua); in its proper sense, the letters of one or several words read backwards; thus, evil is an anagram of live. In a wider sense, it means a transposition of letters, to form a new word or phrase; for instance, tone and note. An anagram is called impure, if, in their transposition, all the letters of the given words are not used. In former times, such plays of ingenuity were popular, and we frequently find, in old inscriptions, the year and date indicated by means of an anagram. An anagram of Berolinum is Lumen orbi. Calvin, in the title of his Institutions, called himself Alcuinus, by an anagram of his name, Calvinus. In a similar way, the words Revolution Française include the words Un Corse la finira, and the significant Veto. The question of Pilate to Christ, Quid est veritas? gives the anagram-Est vir qui adest. Dr. Burney's anagram of Horatio Nelson is one of the happiest ;-Honor est a Nilo. The name of William Noy, attorney-general to Charles I, a laborious lawyer, affords the anagram, I moyl (toil) in law. A very curious work respecting the subject of this article is, Z. Celspirii (Christ. Serpilii) de Anagrammatismo Libri ii. quorum prior Theoriam, posterior Anagrammatographos celebriores, cum Appendice selectorum Anagrammatum exhibet; Ratisbona, 1713, in 8vo.

ANALECTA (from the Greek araléyw, I gather); extracts from different works; e. g., analecta of philosophy, of history and of literature. A periodical of the famous philologist, Wolf, was called Analécta.—

With the ancients, analecta signified a servant, whose business it was to gather up what fell from the tables, at meals, as the pavements of the Roman floors sometimes were too finely inlaid to admit of sweeping.

ANALOGY originally denotes a relation, similarity or agreement of things in certain respects. The knowledge which rests merely on this relation is called analogical. The conclusion deduced from the similarity of things in certain respects, that they are similar, also, in other respects, is called, in logic, an analogical conclusion, and amounts only to a probability. This reasoning is applied to the explanation of authors (analogia interpretationis), and particularly to the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, in which consistency of doctrine is taken for granted (analogia fidei). It is also used in the application of the laws, to form a judgment, in any particular case, by a comparison of former decisions in similar cases. In practical medicine, it is used in the application of remedies.-A great part of the principles of experimental philosophy are established by inferring a further uniformity from that which has been already settled.-In grammar, by analogy is meant a conformity in the organization of words.-In mathematics, it is the similitude of certain proportions. --Newton gives analogy the second place amongst his laws of philosophizing, and may be said to have established some of the most characteristic parts of his system, as arising out of the doctrine of gravitation, on its sober and patient use. In fact, analogical reasoning is essential in inductive philosophy, though it must be used with caution. The history of philosophy shows innumerable instances of the wildest errors, as well as of the sublimest discoveries arising from its application. The modern philosophy of Germany has suffered much in point of correctness and clearness, from several bold speculators, led away by fancied analogies between the moral and physical world; though it cannot be denied, that much of the progress of that nation in philosophical investigations is due to the use of the same instrument.

ANALYSIS, in philosophy; the mode of resolving a compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is opposed to synthesis, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to repre

sent their several divisions, classes and relations. Analysis is regressive, searching into principles; synthesis is progressive, carrying forward acknowledged truths to their application.-Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and developement of the functions of quantities by calculation. There are two ways of representing the relations between quantities, to wit, by construction, and by calculation. Pure geometry determines all magnitudes by construction, i. e., by the mental drawing of lines, whose intersections give the proposed quantities; analysis, on the contrary, makes use of symbolical formulæ, called equations, to express relations. In this widest extent of the idea of analysis, algebra, assisted by literal arithmetic, appears as the first part of the system. Analysis, in a narrower sense, is distinguished from algebra, inasmuch as it considers quantities in a different point of view. While algebra speaks of the known and unknown, analysis treats of the unchanging or constant, and of the changing or variable. The algebraic equation, x2+a x — b=0, for example, seeks an expression for the unknown by means of the known a and b; but the analytical equation, y2 = ax, expresses the law of the formation of the variable y, by means of the variable x, together with the constant a.-In its application to geometry, analysis seeks by calculation the geometrical magnitudes for an assumed or undetermined unit. The analysis of the ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns, which, as before said, extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the mutual dependence of magnitudes. But analysis and algebra resemble each other in this, that both, as is shown more fully in the article on algebra, reason in a language, into the expressions of which certain conditions are translated, and then, according to the rules of the language, are treated more fully, in order to arrive at the result. Analysis, when considered in this light, appears to be the widest extent of the province of this language. Analysis, in the more limited sense, is divided into lower and higher, the bounds of which run very much into one another, because many branches of learning are accessible in both ways. While we comprise in lower analysis, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of functions, of series, combinations, logarithms and curves, we

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comprehend in the higher the differential and integral calculus, which are also included in the name infinitesimal calculus; the first of which the French consider as belonging, in a wider sense, to the théorie des fonctions analytiques.-A good account of the ancient analysis is given by Pappus of Alexandria, a mathematician of the 4th century, in his Collection of Geometrical Problems,* in which there is also a list of the analytical writings of the ancients. What progress was made after the destruction of the Roman empire, particularly by the Arabians, in algebraical, and, as interwoven with them, in analytical inquiries, has been related in the article on algebra. Newton and Leibnitz (q. v.) invented the above-mentioned infinitesimal calculus. After them, Euler and the brothers Bernoulli (q. v.) labored with splendid success for the further improvement of mathematical analysis; and, in later times, d'Alembert, Laplace, Lagrange, &c. have raised it still higher. Hindenburg (q. v.) is the inventor of the analysis of combinations. We have not room here to go into detail with respect to the other analytical doctrines.- Euler's Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum, Lausanne, 1748, 2 vols. (new ed., Leyden, 1797) still continues one of the most important works, in regard to the analysis of finite quantities. In close connexion with this stands the same author's Institutiones Calculi differentialis, Petersburg, 1755, 4to. Lagrange's Théorie des Fonctions Analytiques (new ed., Paris, 1813, 4to.) is, on account of the depth of its views and its many valuable applications to geometry and mechanics, a valuable work for the study of the connexion between the analysis of finite quantities, and the so named (though, indeed, here considered in a very different light) calculation of infinities. As this work cannot be understood without a good acquaintance with general and very abstract calculations, we would connect with it the same author's Leçons sur le Calcul des Fonctions (new ed., Paris, 1806). Arbogast's Calcul des Derivations, Strasburg, 1800, 4to., is new in its views of the analysis of finite quantities. The most excellent of the old works on the integral calculus is Euler's Institutiones Calculi Integralis, Petersburg, 1768-1770, 3 *There is a Latin translation of it by Commandinus-Mathemat. Collationes, Commentariis illustrate, Bonn, 1659, folio. The Greek text is not published.

It has this title on account of the application which is here made of the idea of the infinite, and its connexion with the higher analysis.

vols., 4to. The present state of the integral calculus, after the improvements of the French analysts, may be learned from Lacroix's Traité du Calcul différentiel et du Calcul intégral, Paris, 1797 and seq., 3 vols., 4to. (There has since appeared a new edition.)-For beginners, we recommend Pasquich's Mathematical Analysis, Leipsic, 1791, and, for more advanced students, the same author's Elementa Analyseos sublimioris, Leipsic, 1799, 4to. Nürnberger's Exposition of the Formation of all derived Functions, Hamburg, 1821, treats this subject in a new point of view. For A. in chemistry, see Chemistry.

ANAMORPHOSIS; a perspective projection of any thing, so that it shall appear at one point of view deformed; at another, an exact representation.

ANAPEST. (See Rhythm.)

ANANAS, in botany; a species of bromelia, commonly called pine-apple (q. v.), from the similarity of its shape to the cones of firs and pines.

ANAPHORA (Greek, avagogù, repetition); a rhetorical figure, which consists in the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of several successive sentences. A similar repetition at the end of sentences is called epiphora, or homoioteleuton. Anaphora is sometimes used as the general name for both figures; the former is then called epanaphora. The anaphora aims to increase the energy of the phrase, but is often rendered ineffectual by too frequent repetition.

ANASTASIUS I, emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A. D. 491. He distinguished himself by his moderation towards different Christian sects, whose quarrels at that time disturbed the peace and safety of the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he repealed a very heavy tax, called chrysargyrum, and prohibited the fighting with wild beasts. He died A. D. 518, after a reign of 27 years.-A. II was another emperor of the East, dethroned by Theodosius, in 719, and afterwards put to death.-A., surnamed Bibliothecarius, a Roman abbot, keeper of the Vatican library, and one of the most learned men in the 9th century, assisted, in 829, at the 4th general council, the acts and canons of which he translated from the Greek into Latin. He also composed the lives of several popes, and other works, the best edition of which is that of the Vatican, 4 vols. fol., 1718.

ANATHEMA (cursed by God) is the form of excommunication from the church. Hence, to pronounce the anathema, or to anathematize, means, in the Roman Cath