population, and its condition oefore the arrival of the Europeans, only a small portion of the existing materials have, as yet, been collected. Traditions, monuments and other circumstances seem to indicate a double emigration from the East, one across the Aleutian islands, another farther south, over the tract which occupied the present place of the Atlantic ocean, if such a tract ever existed, as many writers have imagined. Or are the earliest inhabitants of America, the Toltecas, in Mexico, descended from that branch of the Huns, who migrated to the north-east A. D. 100, and the nations of South America from a tribe of the Mexicans, driven southward by the plague, about the year 1050? More light, we hope, will be shed on this subject, especially on what respects North America, by the American antiquarian societies. From the first volume of the transactions of the one established at Worcester, in Massachusetts, it may be seen that those antiquities which pertain, in reality, to the North American Indians, consist, for the most part, of rude hatchets and knives of stone, of mortars for bruising maize, of arrow-heads, and similar articles. A second class consists of articles which the natives received from the earliest settlers. They are frequently found in the graves of the Indians. There is a third and more interesting class, derived from the nation that built the forts or tumuli (graves, walls, artificial eminences, hearths, &c.) in North America. To judge from these works, this nation must have been far more civilized, and much better acquainted with the useful arts, than the present Indians. From the lofty trees with which they are overgrown, it is concluded that a long period must have elapsed-perhaps 1000 years since the desertion of these fabrics, and the extinction of the people by whom they were constructed. They are found in the vicinity of each other, spread over the great plains, from the southern shore of lake Erie to the gulf of Mexico, generally in the neighborhood of the great rivers. Their structure is regular, and they have been supposed to warrant the opinion of the existence, in ancient times, of great cities along the Mississippi. The mummies, as they are called, or dried bodies, enveloped with coarse cloth, and found in some of the saltpetre caves of Kentucky, are worthy of attention. As we proceed farther south, these works increase in number and magnitude. Their traces may be followed, through the provinces of Texas and New Mexico, into South America.-Although the accounts of the earliest generations of this quarter of the world are scanty and obscure, its later history is rich in occurrences. The Icelanders made a voyage, in 982, to Winland (the name given to the tract extending from Greenland to Labrador); and the Venetians gave some information respecting the West India islands (in maps of 1424); but America still remained a sealed book for Europe till the period of its discovery by Columbus (q. v.), in 1492. Besides several voyages which he made subsequently to this continent, it was visited by Amerigo Vespucci (from whom it takes its name), in 1499; by Sebastian Cabot, in 1497; by Cabral, in 1500, and by Balbao, in 1507. Shortly after, followed the expeditions of Cortez, Pizarro, &c. It is probable that the new world has not been inhabited more than 12 centuries. This circumstance, together with the oppression which the aborigines have suffered since the settlement of the whites in their country, will account for the smallness of their number.-Equally obscure with the origin of the Americans are their various ramifications. Their different languages, stated by Franc. Lopez at 1500, have been resolved, by Alex. von Humboldt, into 2 original tongues,— the Toltecan and the Apalachian. (See Indians.)-Nature has cast the surface of the new world in larger forms, and endowed it with fresher vitality, at least in the warmer regions, than she has bestowed on the soil of the old world. A. has every variety of climate; but the climate generally differs from that of the eastern hemisphere, by a greater predominance of cold. It is calculated that the heat is at least 10 degrees less, than in the same parallels in the eastern continent. A. abounds in almost all the varieties of the animal, vegetable and mineral productions. It contains a great variety of wild animals; and, since its discovery, the various domestic animals of Europe have been introduced, and are now found in great abundance. In comparing animals of the same species, in the two continents, it has been found, in a majority of instances, where a difference in size has been ascertained, that the American animal is larger than that of the eastern continent. The birds are exceedingly numerous, and are said to be more beautiful in their plumage than those of Asia and Africa, but in their notes less melodious. The condor, which frequents the Andes of South America, holds, on account of its size, strength and rapacity, the preeminence ver. over all the feathered creation. Reptiles are numerous, and many of them venomous. Insects abound, and, in many parts, are very offensive. The American waters are remarkable for the variety and abundance of their fish. A. produces every kind of grain, fruit, pulse, herbs, plants and flowers native to Europe, besides a great variety of others, as cacao, cinnamon, pepper, sarsaparilla, vanilla, scarlet dye, a great variety of balsams, mahogany, logwood, Brazil-wood, sassafras, aloes, barks, gums, resins and medicinal herbs. This continent, particularly South America and Mexico, abounds in gold and silSince the discovery of the American mines, such ample supplies of these precious metals have been carried to Europe, that their value has become much diminished. A. also produces an abundance of copper, quicksilver, iron, antimony, sulphur, nitre, lead, loadstone, and marbles of every sort. It has various kinds of precious stones, as diamonds, rubies, emeralds, amethysts, alabaster, &c. The inhabitants may be divided into 3 classes,-Whites, Negroes and Indians. The whites are descendants of Europeans, who have migrated to A. since its discovery. The Negroes are mostly held in slavery, and are descendants of Africans, forced from their native country. The Indians are the aborigines, and generally savages. They are of copper complexion, fierce aspect, tall, straight, athletic, and capable of enduring great fatigue. They are hospitable and generous, faithful in their friendships, but implacable in their resentments. Their common occupations are hunting, fishing and war. At the time of the discovery of America, the natives, in some parts, particularly Mexico and Peru, were considerably advanced in civilization. For the most part, they continue a distinct people, and retain their savage customs; but, in some instances, they have mingled with the white population. The Indians still occupy the greater part of America. In North America, they possess almost all the country, except the southern and eastern parts; that is, the northern part of Spanish America, most of the territory of the U. States which lies west of the Mississippi, and nearly all the vast regions which lie north of the U. States' territory, and west of the St. Lawrence. In South America, they possess Patagonia, and most of the interior of the continent.-The whites, who are descended from Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, Dutch, Danish, German and Russian colonists, are estimated, by Humboldt, at 13,500,000 Indians, Negroes, Mixed races,. 8,600,000 6,500,000 6,500,000 The whole amount is over 35 millions; some think there are 40 millions of inhabitants; but there is yet space and fertile soil for more than 500 millions. A great part of the Indians are subdued, and are included in the population of Mexico, Guatimala and the states of South America. The numbers of those who speak the different languages made use of in A., are thus distributed: English language, Spanish,.. Portuguese, Indian languages, French language, Dutch, Danish, Swedish and Russian, 11,647,000 10,174,000 3,740,000 7,593,000 1,242,000 216,000. (See Carey and Lea's Historical, Chronological and Geographical American Atlas, &c., Philadelphia, 1825, fol.)-See also the different names mentioned in this article. AMERICA, Geology of. The great leading features in the structure of the new world are,-1st. The continuous belt of high mountains and plateaus traversing its western border, from Behring's straits to Terra del Fuego, forming the most uninterrupted extent of primitive mountains known. Their northern portion, consisting of the Rocky mountains, appears to be chiefly granitic, while, in the Cordilleras of Mexico, and the Andes of South America, the primitive strata are, for the most part, covered with immense accumulations of transition porphyries, trachytes and lavas, forming numerous volcanoes, many of which are in constant activity. 2dly. The wide expanse of low and generally plain country, that succeeds immediately on the west to the above-mentioned zone of mountains, and through which, in both hemispheres, flow some of the most magnificent streams in the world. This region consists of immense deposits of newer rocks, over which is strewed every where, as with a mantle, the alluvial formation, or a covering of sand and gravel, with which are intermingled rolled masses of rocks. 3dly. The chain of mountains of lower elevation and inferior continuity, which forms the eastern boundary to the low country, and whose principal masses and highest points are composed of granite. 4thly. The clusters of islands occupying the seas between North and South America, which are, almost without exception, of a volcanic origin.-The geological character 210 GEOLOGY OF AMERICA-AMERICANISM. of A. partakes of the simplicity observable in her great mountain ranges, which obey highly uniform laws of arrangement, and are, in a measure, free from those interruptions which occur in Europe, arising out of its numerous chains, whose irregular and often contradictory structure it is frequently difficult to reconcile or explain. The two continents agree in the prevailing primitive character of their northern extremities, and in the prevalence of volcanoes about their equatorial and southern regions; and an investigation of their geological relations affords no grounds for the common opinion, that the new world is of a more recent origin than the old.For a more minute account of the geology of America, see North America, Mexico and South America. 66 objectionable innovations "in our parliamentary language;" as the verbs to notice, to advocate and to progress, the last of which he condemned as "the most awkward and abominable of the three. The word opposed," he adds, "though not a new word, is used in a new manner; as, 'the gentlemen who are opposed to this measure, to which I have myself been opposed.' Several other American writers have remarked upon particular words and expressions. The British reviewers and other writers have also, until very lately, indulged themselves in severe animadversions upon American writers, for their occasional deviations from the English standard; though, in some instances, they have themselves adopted the very words which they formerly condemned. Of the AMERICAN COMPANY, the Russian. In words thus sanctioned by them, the verb 1785, two Russian mercantile houses, to advocate was, no longer ago than in the Schelikoff and Golikoff, projected the year 1793, denounced as one of the words formation of a regular company, to en- which the Americans had invented, courage the fur-trade of the north-west- without any apparent reason," and which ern shore of North America. They erect- the English had "altogether declined to ed forts for the protection of a chain countenance.” But this ill-fated word, of factories on most of the islands, and which was then proscribed as an Ameriinduced several respectable merchants to can intruder into the language, has more join in their extensive and lucrative adven- recently been discovered to have been tures. Many cruelties against the natives used as long ago as the age of Milton, the were charged upon the company, and the excellence of whose prose writings had, emperor Paul was upon the eve of sup- until modern days, been entirely lost sight pressing it altogether, when the company of in the splendor and majesty of his pledged itself to more regular proceed- poetic diction. We have still, however, ings. In 1799, it was formally established some doubt whether Milton used this with considerable privileges. The emword in the sense now affixed to it both peror Alexander took it under his partic- in England and America ; it was certainly ular patronage at his accession. The used in a different sense by his contemcondition of the fur-collectors of the com- poraries, and the present meaning of it pany is said, however, to be still wretch- had not been sanctioned, as we strongly ed in the extreme, and only to be exceed- believe, by any subsequent writers (if we ed by that of the oppressed Aleutians, except a single instance in Burke's works), who are, in turn, their slaves. until it was brought into general use in America, by the writers of this country, and, more recently, by the authority of Milton's name, among English writers, some of whom now claim it as their own, with as much zeal as it was once condemned. (See Todd's edition of Johnson's Dict.) Some other words, which were either newly-coined, or old ones newly brought into use in America, have been admitted into good writing in England. The particulars in which Americans have departed from English usage, may be reduced to the following classes: AMERICANISM; an idiom, or use of the English language, peculiar to the inhabitants of the U. States. The deviations of the Americans from the English usage, in their common language, were occasionally noticed, many years ago, by some of their own writers, as well as by the critics of the mother country. Among the American authors, who have animadverted upon them, the most conspicuous was doctor Franklin, who was himself a writer of great purity and correctness of style, and who censured, in strong language, "the popular errors several of our states were continually falling into," both with respect to "expression and pronunciation." This remark was made 40 years ago, when he himself noted a few words, which, at that time, he pronounced to be 1. Words entirely new, of which the number is extremely small; e. g. caucus, boatable. 2. Words to which is affixed a meaning different from that of the English; e. g. clever, to girdle. 3. Words whose original meaning has been preserv ed by Americans, while the English have given them a new signification. 4. Provincialisms, originally brought from different counties in England, by the first emigrants to America, and still used here, just as they are in the mother country at this day. This class of words may be said to be wholly confined to the language of conversation. 5. Words which have become obsolete in England, but are still in use in America; as, to tarry. It may be further remarked, that, in all these classes, a great proportion of the words are of local use, technical, mere vulgarisms, or used only by individual writers, whose caprice and affectation of style are not followed by the nation at large. We have observed, that single words and expressions had been occasionally mentioned by American writers many years ago. The first attempt to make a general collection of all such words as had been supposed to be American peculiarities, was that of Mr. John Pickering, who published a Vocabulary of them in the Memoirs of the American Academy (vol. 3, p. 439), in the year 1809. This valuable collection was afterwards reprinted, with large additions by the author, under the title of A Vocabulary or Collection of Words and Phrases, which have been supposed to be peculiar to the U. States of America (8vo., pp. 206, Boston, 1816), and was accompanied with a Memoir on the present State of the English Language in the U. States. It contains a list of about 500 words and phrases, which are all carefully examined, and traced, in almost every instance, to an English origin. This Vocabulary has been freely used in the late valuable edition of Johnson, by Mr. Worcester, who observes that it "has had a salutary influence on our literature, by calling the attention of our scholars to the occasional deviations of American writers from pure English." Mr. Webster's new Dictionary of the English Language (published 1829, New-York) contains many words with their American significations; but this work is not so complete in Americanisms as the Vocabulary of Mr. Pickering above-mentioned. We shall recur to this subject under the article English Language.-We cannot conclude these remarks, without directing the reader's attention to the circumstance that England and the U. States of America afford the first instance in history of two great, independent and active nations daily developing new and characteristic features, situated at a great distance from each other, and having a common lan guage and literature. These relations must, sooner or later, exert a decisive influence upon the common dialect; for no language is so settled as not to undergo continual changes, if spoken by a nation in the full vigor of social and political life. Authority, in regard to language, will go far, but never can withstand for a long time the energies and wants of a free, industrious and thinking people. Spain and Portugal, indeed, with the independent nations of South America, present an instance in many respects parallel; but the contest of language will be more languid, in proportion as there is less energy and activity in the mother countries, and less progress in the arts and sciences, as well as less political advancement, in the states which have lately shaken off the yoke. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS; properly, Amerigo Vespucci; born March 9, 1451, at Florence, of an ancient family. He early made great progress in natural philosophy, astronomy and geography, at that time the three principal branches of science studied at Florence, on account of their importance in relation to commerce. In 1490, he went to Spain for the purpose of trading, and was at Seville when Columbus was making preparations for his second voyage. The success of Columbus's undertaking excited Vespucci to give up trade, and explore these newly-discovered countries. According to his own account, in one of his letters, he entered on his first voyage, under the command of admiral Ojeda, May 20th, 1497, who left the harbor of Cadiz with 4 ships, and, after a voyage of 37 days, reached the main land of America, explored the bay of Paria, and the coast for several hundred miles, and, after 18 months, returned to Spain, and was received with distinction by the court at Seville. In May, 1499, he began his second voyage, the fruit of which was the discovery of a multitude of small islands. This is his own account. But it is fully proved, that no such voyage as the one first mentioned was made, and that his first expedition to the new continent was in 1499, under the command of Ojeda, a year after the discovery and examination of that part of the coast by Columbus. Other accounts of Vespucci are, also, inconsistent with the statement above given. (See Irving's Columbus.) After this, he entered the service of king Emanuel of Portugal, and made 2 voyages in Portuguese ships; the first, May 10, 1501; the second, May 10, 1503. The object of this last voyage was to find a westerly passage to Malacca. A. arrived 212 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS-AMES. at Brazil, and discovered the bay of All Saints. In 1505, he again entered the service of the king of Spain, but made no more voyages, as appears from memoranda, showing that he was at Seville till 1508, at which time he was appointed principal pilot. His duties were to prepare charts, and prescribe routes for vessels in their voyages to the new world, which soon received his name. This honor certainly belonged to Columbus rather than to A., for the prior discovery of the continent by the former is not to be questioned. We have a chart of America laid down by A.; a journal of 4 of his voyages, printed at Paris, 1532, in the Latin language, in 22 pages, 4to.; and Amerigo's Letters, which appeared at Florence after his death, published by John Stephen di Carlo da Pavia. Vespucci died at Seville, in 1512. Emanuel, king of Portugal, caused the remains of the ship Victoria, in which he had made his last voyage to America, to be hung up in the cathedral at Lisbon, and Florence conferred marks of distinction on his family. The accounts of his life are full of contradictions and perplexities. (See Irving's Life of Columbus, 3d vol., Appendix, No. ix.) AMES, Fisher, one of the most eloquent of American statesmen and writers, was born at Dedham, in Massachusetts, April 9, 1758, of very respectable parents. Soon after the completion of his 12th year, he was admitted to Harvard college, with the reputation of uncommon talents and attainments. Diligence, regularity and success marked his collegiate course of four years. After receiving his degree, in 1774, the narrow circumstances of his widowed mother compelled him to postpone, for several years, the accomplishment of his original purpose of studying the law. In the interval, he acted as an assistant teacher in a public school, and continued to cultivate classical literature, to the signal improvement of his taste and fancy. At length, in 1781, he commenced the practice of the law, with the stock of knowledge which he had acquired in the office of a member of the profession, in Boston. Opportunity soon occurred for the display of his superior qualifications, both as a speaker and essay writer. The fame which followed his early efforts conduced to place him in the Massachusetts convention for ratifying the constitution, in 1788. From this sphere, in which he made a deep impression by some of his speeches, particularly that on biennial elections, he passed to the house of rep resentatives in the state legislature. Here, he soon became so eminent as an orator and man of business, that the voters of the Suffolk district elected him their first representative in the congress of the U. States. He had not been long in that assembly before his friends and admirers were satisfied that they had not overrated his abilities. He won there the palm of eloquence, besides proving himself equal to the discussion of the deepest subjects of politics and finance, and the execution of the most arduous committee labors. He remained in congress during eight years, the whole of Washington's administration, which he constantly and zealously defended. "His speech on the British treaty," says his distinguished biographer, doctor Kirkland, "was the era of his political life. For many months, he had been sinking under weakness, and, though he had attended the long and interesting debate on the question which involved the constitution and the peace of the U. States, it was feared he would be unable to speak. But when the time came for taking a vote so big with consequences, his emotions would not suffer him to be silent. His appearance, his situation, the magnitude of his subject, the force and the pathos of his eloquence, gave this speech an extraordinary power over the feelings of the dignified and numerous assembly who heard it. When he had finished, a member in opposition moved to postpone the decision of the question, that they might not vote under the influence of a sensibility which their calm judgment might condemn."-On the retirement of Washington, Mr. A. returned to his residence at Dedham, where he occupied himself with the management of his farm and the practice of the law. The latter he relinquished in a few years, owing to the decline of his health; but he felt too deep an interest in the welfare of his country to withdraw his mind and pen from politics. He published a considerable number of essays, relating chiefly to the contest between Great Britain and revolutionary France, as it might affect American liberty and prosperity. No writer evinced more ardor for the success of Britain, or more horror of the character and tendencies of the French despotism. In 1804, Mr. A. was chosen president of Harvard college, an honor which he declined. When Washington died, Mr. A., then a member of the council of the commonwealth, was appointed to pronounce his funeral eulogy before the legislature of Massachusetts.-The injury |