ants: it has a strong castle on the western side of a spacious bay, protected by a projecting point of land and several small islands, and is situated on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. This place has become distinguished, in modern times, by the naval battle, in which the English admiral Nelson annihilated the French fleet, between the first and the third of August, 1798. May 19, 1798, the latter sailed from the harbor of Toulon, to convey an army to Egypt, under the command of general Buonaparte. As soon as the English admiral St. Vincent, who was cruising before Cadiz, received information of this, he despatched rear-admiral Nelson, with 14 ships of the line, to the Mediterranean, with orders to seek and attack the French fleet. Aug. 1, Nelson caught a glimpse of the French ships in the road of A. and gave the signal of battle. The French captains, who were just then assembled on board the admiral's ship, had hardly time to retire to their posts, before the first English ship began the attack. Although the French fleet was disposed in a curved line, as near as possible to a small island, protected by a battery of cannon and mortars, Nelson suddenly ordered half of his force to break through, between the island and the French line of battle, and to sail under the shore, in their rear, while the other half approached their front, and anchored within pistol shot; so that the French ships were attacked from all sides. At sunset, about half past 6 o'clock in the evening, the battle began. At the end of an hour, 5 French ships were dismasted and taken. The French admiral, Brueys, was killed by a cannon-ball; his ship, L'Orient, however, continued the battle with great spirit, until she took fire. About 10 o'clock, this splendid vessel, of 120 guns, blew up. Of 1000 men, but 70 or 80 were saved. Capt. Casabianca was mortally wounded, and his son, a boy 12 years old, voluntarily remained in the burning ship, and shared his fate. The other ships continued the cannonade till the morning, which witnessed the entire defeat of the French fleet. But 2 ships of the line and 2 frigates escaped to Malta and Corfu; 9 ships of the line were taken, 1 blown up, and another, together with a frigate, burned by the French themselves; 1 frigate, however, was sunk. Thus the naval power of France in the Mediterranean was a second time annihilated; the British flag waved triumphant from Gibraltar to Alexandria; Buonaparte's communica

tion with France was cut off, and his enemies, with renovated hopes, united again, in the subsequent year, in a new coalition. (See Egypt, landing of the French in.)

ABOULFEDA. (See Abulfeda.)

ABOUT; the situation of a ship immediately after she has tacked, or changed her course.

ABRACADABRA; a term of incantation, which was formerly believed to have the power of curing fevers, especially the slow fevers, the intermittent of 4 days, and the hemitritæus, so called by Hippocrates, which was generally fatal. At present, this word is, for the most part, used in jest, without any particular meaning, like hocus pocus. According to Q. Serenus Sammonicus, it ought to be written so as to form a magic triangle, in order to produce the supposed effect; viz. ABRACADABRA BRACADABR RACADAB

The triangle, thus formed, reads Abracadabra, beginning with A, and thence passing over to any line you please, and stopping at the last letter of the first line. Greek amulets, which bear the inscription ABPAKAAABPA, leave no doubt that this magic word, properly, ought to be pronounced Abrasadabra, though the Jews say also Abracalan. Abrasadabra probably means divine decree, and is derived from the sacred name of the Supreme Being, Abrasax, or Abras. Others are of opinion that the term Abrasax took its origin from the first letters of the Hebrew words Ab, Ben, Ruach hakodesh, (Father, Son and Holy Ghost,) and from the initials of the Greek words, owrygia anė žulov, (salvation from the wood of the cross.) Abrasax is neither an Ægyptian, nor Greek, nor Hebrew, but a Persian name, which denotes the Persian deity, Mithras.-Superstitious people, moreover,

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used to write the word Abracadabra, in the manner above-mentioned, on a square piece of paper; then folded it so as to cover the writing, sewed it together with white thread, hung it, by a piece of tape, around the neck, so as to reach the heart, wore it for 9 days, and then went, before sunrise, in profound silence, to a river which flowed to the east, took it from the neck, and threw it, but without opening or reading it, into the water over their heads.

ABRAHAM; the father, and most celebrated patriarch of the Jews, with whom their history commences, as, likewise, the promises given them by God, and the miracles performed in their favor. He was born at Ur, in Chaldæa, about 2000 B. C., and descended in the eighth generation from Shem, Noah's eldest son. He passed his early days in the house of his father, Terah, where he was kept from idolatry, which prevailed in his family. Obedient to the voice of God, which pointed out his noble destiny, and commanded him to settle in Canaan, he went to that country with his father, his wife, and his nephew, and fixed his abode at Haran, in Mesopotamia. After his father's death, he led a wandering life, in obedience to the will of God. He visited Sichem, Bethel, and Gerara, whence he returned to Bethel. Frequent dissensions between his servants and those of Lot caused their final separation. A. remained at Mamre, but Lot settled in Gomorrah. Afterwards, on hearing that four Arabian chiefs had invaded Gomorrah, and carried off Lot with his family and property, A. pursued them with 318 servants, conquered them, and rescued his nephew, and all that belonged to him. God revealed futurity to A. and ratified his covenant with him and his posterity, by the law of circumcision. The advanced age of A. and Sarah seemed to render doubtful the fulfilment of these promises, when three angels, in the shape of travellers, came to visit them. They were sent to punish Sodom and Gomorrah for their wickedness, and announced that, at their return, Sarah would be a mother. Though she was 90 years old, she conceived, and bore Isaac, at the time designated by the angel. When Isaac had reached his 25th year, God wished to put A.'s fidelity to a new trial, and commanded him to sacrifice his only son, on mount Moriah. The old man was ready to obey. The victim was already placed on the altar, and about to receive the fatal stroke, when God, convinced of

the obedience of his servant, stopped his lifted arm. Sarah died, but A. married Keturah, who bore him 6 more children. He died 175 years old, and was buried near Sarah, in a cave which he had bought for his sepulchre from the sons of Heth. Not only the Jews, but also the Arabians, derive their origin from this patriarch: the Greek and Roman churches have introduced his name into their legends. He is also mentioned in the Koran, and some of the Mahometan writers assert that A. went to Mecca, and commenced the erection of the temple. The Jews have at all times honored his tomb and his memory. His history, as given by the rabbins, is a mixture of truth and fiction.

His

ABRAHAM a Sancta Clara; born in Krähenheimstetten, in Suabia, June 4, 1642. His true name was Ulrich Megerle. He was distinguished, as a preacher, for the originality of his conceptions. At Marienbrunn, in the south of Austria, he joined, in 1662, the barefooted friars of the order of St. Augustin, applied himself to philosophy and theology, in a monastery of his order at Vienna, was then employed as preacher in the convent of Taxa, in Bavaria, and soon called to preach at the imperial court of Vienna, where he continued till the year 1709, when he died, 67 years old. His sermons are burlesque, and full of the strangest notions. striking peculiarities, agreeable, however, to the spirit of his age, procured him a numerous audience, and his sermons were not without effect, since they treated of popular subjects, and were seasoned with much sarcasm, adapted to all ranks. The titles of some of his writings show the tone in which they are composed: as, Fy on the World, or, about Virtue and Vice; Salutary Mixture; Abraham a Sancta Clara's Nest of newly-hatched Fools, or curious Workshop of various Fools, both male and female, etc. A. was, by nature, a popular orator; he joined to an odd exterior a strong mind, endowed with a thorough knowledge of mankind, and a fervent love of truth. With the boldest frankness, he scourges the follies of his age, and vigorously attacks the weak mysticism and pedantry of most preachers of his time.

ABRAHAM, heights of. (See Quebec.) ABRAHAMITES, Abrahamians, or deists of Bohemia, were a number of ignorant peasants, who came forth from their obscurity in 1782, confiding in the edict of toleration published by Joseph II., and avowed the same belief which Abraham

professed before the law of circumcision. The doctrine of the unity of God, and the Lord's prayer, were all which they regarded in the Bible. Their petition for freedom in religious worship was, however, rejected, because they refused to declare themselves Jews, or members of any of the established Christian sects. The emperor Joseph, less enlightened in matters of religion than is generally believed, drove these honest people, in 1783, from their possessions, because they resisted all attempts made for their conversion, and dispersed them, by military force, among various places, on the boundaries of Hungary, Transylvania, and Sclavonia, where they were compelled to embrace the Roman Catholic faith, and the men to join the frontier militia. Many of them adhered firmly to their religious principles.

ABRANTES; a city of 3,500 inhabitants, on the right bank of the Tagus, in the province of Estramadura, in Portugal. It is considered as of great military importance, on account of its situation on a number of steep hills, forming a defile; by reason, likewise, of its old castle, converted into a citadel; and of the river, which is navigable as far as this place. The Portuguese, in this fortress, braved the Spaniards as early as 1762. In 1808, the army under Junot arrived at A., after a dangerous and tedious march along the banks of the Tagus, through the woody, mountainous and barren Beira. Junot ordered the castle, as well as the city, which he found ungarrisoned, to be placed in a state of defence; and, in spite of the great fatigue of his troops, hastened to Lisbon, then occupied by 15,000 Portuguese soldiers, and inhabited by 350,000 souls. The quickness of his march, and the daring courage with which he took possession of this capital, at the head of only 1500 grenadiers, induced Napoleon to make him duke of Abrantes. At a later period, however, he committed gross mistakes. At the capitulation of Cintra, A. was surrendered to the English, who made it still stronger. It was, however, of no importance during the remainder of the war, except to Massena, who reconnoitred it at the time when he sat down before the strong position of the duke of Wellington, between Santarem and Peniche.

ABRASAX. (See Abraxas.)

ABRAXAS STONES, or ABRASAX STONES, are very numerous, and represent a human body, with the head of a cock and the feet of a reptile. The inscription

Abraxas or Abrasax is often found on them, in Greek characters, which betray, however, a foreign origin. Bellermann, in his Essay on the Gems of the Ancients, bearing the Image of Abraxas, Berlin, 1817, declares only those having the above inscriptions to be genuine. The gems which have been imported into Europe from Egypt and Asia, and are also found in Spain in great abundance, belonged, according to his opinion, to the religious sect of the Basilidians, and were used, partly as means to teach secret doctrines, partly as symbols, partly as amulets or talismans. Grotefend derives the name from the Persian language; Bellermann thinks it to be a composition of the Egyptian words Abrac and Sax, and renders it "the holy word of bliss," which reminds us of the Tetragrammaton of the Jews. Different explanations have been proposed by others. The ancients attempted to give meaning to the word by considering the letters as Greek numerals, which make together 365.-The name of Abraxas stone is, in modern times, applied to a variety of gems that exhibit enigmatical compositions, strange words in foreign characters, as Ablanathanalba, &c., and even to those which bear the emblems of Sabæism, the sun and moon, with other symbols, which want, however, the characteristic type of the Basilidians. These are more properly called Abraxoids. The Basilidian names, seen on many stones of this class, are explained by Bellermann, by the aid of the Semitic languages. The interesting disquisition on this subject of Neander, professor at the university of Berlin, deserves to be carefully compared with the opinions advanced by Bellermann.

ABRIAL, André-Joseph, born March 19, 1750, at Annonay, department de l'Ardèche, at present count and peer of France, &c., studied law in Paris, and embraced the principles of the revolution, during which he was, for a long period, commissioner of the executive power in the court of cassation. In 1799, he organized the republican government in Naples. After the 18th of Brumaire, the first consul intrusted him with the ministry of justice, saying, as it is related, "Not I, but the public voice nominates you." After 18 months, he quitted this station, and entered the sénat conservateur. In 1804, he organized the department of justice in Italy, when the young Cisalpine republic was again dissolved. In 1811, he was made count of the empire, and was for 10 years a member of

that committee in the senate, ridiculously called commission de la liberté individuelle, while it daily submitted, with blind subservience, to the imperial orders. In 1814, Abrial voted for the overthrow of the imperial dynasty. Louis XVIII. made him a peer, and since that time he has voted with some independence in the chamber of peers.

ABRUZZO, the northern extremity of the kingdom of Naples, is bounded on the north and west by the states of the church, on the east by the Adriatic, on the south by Puglia and Terra di Lavoro. It contains 628,600 inhabitants, and is divided into A. ulterior, which comprises the north-western, and A. citerior, which comprises the south-eastern part. The highest part of the chain of the Apennines crosses this mountainous country. In A. ulterior, especially, it is very lofty, with steep cliffs, and throws extraordinary obstacles in the way of internal communication. The rivers which rise in A., the Trento, Trontino, etc., generally flow in a direct course into the Adriatic sea, and have (the Pescara and Sangro excepted) the character of torrents. They are often suddenly swollen by the rains, especially in the spring, and then sweep away the bridges and all means of communication. The climate of A. is severe. The summits of the mountains are covered with snow from October to April. Thick woods crown the eminences; the valleys only are productive; and even they (as the inhabitants are mostly shepherds) afford but a very scanty supply of grain. Almond, walnut, and other fruit-trees thrive every where; olives, in the lower regions, near the sea. The finest herds of all kinds of cattle feed on the heights and in the valleys, and constitute the only article of export. The most important cities are Aquila, Pescara, (both fortresses,) and Sulmona. The importance of A. consists, principally, in its military sites. Projecting like a bastion 60 geographical miles, far into the territory of the church, it becomes especially important from the circumstance that but one military road, and that an extremely difficult one to an army, leads into the kingdom. There is, indeed, no one like it across the mountains, from the shore of the Mediterranean to that of the Adriatic

ples; or on the one which runs along the Adriatic, from Ancona, by way of Atri, Pescara, etc. into the interior. On the latter road, each of the many parallel rivers forms an excellent position, where the right wing may always be protected by the sea, the left by the contiguous mountains, from which the flank of the assailants is itself exposed to attack. To force these positions would cost a bold enemy much blood. It would be yet more dangerous to attempt to pass Terracina, on the other road, without having possession of A.; for as soon as the army had arrived at Terracina, the rear might be attacked on the left from Rome and the mountains. Finally, should the invaders advance by both roads at once, all communication would be destroyed before they reached Pescara, whence a good road leads over the chain to Sulmona and Teano. They would meet with all the above difficulties, and, at the same time, incur the danger of being defeated in detail. The possession of A. is, therefore, indispensable for the attack of Naples; to force it, however, would be very difficult. As has been said above, of the roads from the states of the church into this province, only the one from Rieti, through Cività ducale to Aquila and Sulmona, is practicable for artillery, and only two others for regular troops, and that with difficulty. All the other ways are nothing more than paths through morasses, where the troops must march in single files, and the cavalry lead their horses. The road from Rieti is, therefore, the only one on which a serious attack can be undertaken; but the strong pass of Antrodocco, and numerous good positions, facilitate its defence. Besides, the thick forests with deep ravines afford advantages for a partisan warfare, in the manner of the guerillas, or the Tyrolese and, had the Neapolitans a warlike spirit, the possession of A., whenever attacked, would not have been obtained without a great sacrifice. But when a people is destitute of courage and energy, when the soldiers, sunk in cowardly apathy, run away at the mere idea of a battle, the most favorable ground will be of no advantage. This is the reason that A., so well adapted for a defensive war, has always been of little use; that Naples has been the prey, sometimes of the Austrians, at other times of the French or the Spaniards; and that the inhabitants have but seldom resisted the conquerors. Once only, in 1798, did the natives of A. rouse themselves against the victorious French

they killed their general, Hilarion-Point, took general Rusca prisoner, and did important injury to the conquerors, especially to the column of general Duhesme. But as the Neapolitan army had been defeated in the states of the church, and fled in the most cowardly manner wherever the French showed themselves, these momentary ebullitions of courage were of little avail to the descendants of the bold Samnites, Marsi and Sabini, who once dwelt on these mountains, a terror to the Romans; and the subsequent petty commotions, in 1806, partook too much of the character of common robberies to merit commendation. In 1815, when Murat advanced against the Austrians, the government was too much hated to be able to organize a popular war after the battle of Tolentino. Instead of resisting, the soldiers born in A. dispersed to their homes, when they marched through this province on their return, and the rivers on the eastern coast rather hindered the retreat of the Neapolitans than the advances of the foe, who proceeded without opposition, both by the roads along the coast and over the mountains, with columns composed of light troops, and by this daring step effected the entire dissolution of the Neapolitan army. In 1821, the revolutionary party at Naples hoped that A. would afford the greatest advantages in a defensive war; and the Venditas of the Carbonari, the popular assemblies, and even the French chamber of deputies, again resounded with praises of the ground and of the spirit which inspired the inhabitants, the worthy descendants of their daring ancestors. The result completely disappointed expectation. After the plan of the Austrians to attack A. on the road from Cività ducale to Aquila and Sulmona was determined on, general Pepe resolved to commence the offensive. On March 7th, 1821, he crossed the boundary of Cività ducale, and attacked general Geppert, at Rieti. His troops advanced with reluctance, found themselves surrounded by two battalions of Austrians, and determined to retreat. The Austrians quickly pursued; the division under Wallmoden reached the strong pass of Antrodocco on the 9th, attacked and soon obtained possession of it, another division having already taken the pass of Borghette without resistance, while one portion of the Neapolitans fled from dissatisfaction with the new government, and another from cowardice. The whole Neapolitan army being dispersed, the militia and volun

teers returned home; the troops of the line, weakened by desertion, withdrew into the interior of the country; and Pepe himself left the army in anger at their cowardice. Aquila opened its gates on the 11th; the citadel then capitulated, and the inhabitants of Abruzzo furnished the Austrians with provisions, without evincing any desire to prolong this partisan war. By the speedy advance of the Austrians to Sulmona, general Carascosa, who held possession of the road of Terracina, and also the corps which protected the road along the coast of the Adriatic, were surrounded, and both the regulars and militia, having dispersed, hastened back. Thus ended a war, which affords another proof, that even the pass of Thermopyla has no value unless defended by Spartans. The inhabitants of this mountainous region are generally banditti, who render the frontiers of Naples and of the territories of the church extremely insecure. These banditti consist of the peasants living in the mountains, who possess property and families, but, in addition to their agricultural concerns, make a trade of robbery. Urged by rapacity and poverty to murder and plunder, they unite and fall upon the traveller, and not unfrequently upon the inhabitants and houses of the plains.

ABSALOM, (in Danish, Axel,) bishop of Roeskilde or Rothschild, and archbishop of Denmark from 1158 to 1201; renowned as a clergyman, statesman, general, and navigator; descended from a family of high rank, and, even from his early youth, a friend and counsellor of king Waldemar I., whose ability in peace and war procured him the surname of the Great. A. had a large share in the administration of Waldemar I. He was active, humane, and learned; set an example of industry to the monks, and improved the condition of the church in Denmark. In his youth, he studied at Paris. Under his direction Saxo wrote the valuable Danish chronicle. A. never abused his power or the favor of the king; so that Waldemar ever remained his friend. He had the honor of being the founder of the chief city of Denmark,Copenhagen. He built the castle, called, after him, Axelburg, and the city, Axelstadt. This castle, enlarged and improved, served the kings of Denmark afterwards for their residence, till the 18th century. A. died, A. D. 1201, in the 73d year of his age. His grave is still seen in Soroe, then a convent in Zealand.

ABSENTEE; a word in modern times particularly applied to those land-owners