much owing to the elaborate character drawn of him by his friend Clarendon, there can be no doubt of the strict integrity of his character and intentions. As a man of active talent, he claims little admiration, and was evidently framed for that life of studious retirement and mental culture in which he so much delighted. One of his sayings marks his taste and character-"I pity unlearned gentlemen on a rainy day." Lord Falkland left behind him several published speeches and pamphlets on political and theological subjects, as also a few poems.

CARYATIDES; a kind of pillars, which represent the upper part of female bodies. The name is of Greek origin. The goddess Diana, who had a temple in Karyatis, a Peloponnesian city, was, for this reason, called Karyatis. In honor of her, virgins danced in a festive procession, on the feast of Karyatis, which suggested to architects the idea of adopting the image of virgins in a kind of column which ornamented the Pantheon. Thus Lessing explains the name and form of the Caryatides. Another explanation of the origin of Caryatides is the following: The inhabitants of Carya, a city of Peloponnesus, allied themselves with the barbarians in the Persian war. The Greeks, on the successful termination of that struggle, exterminated the males of Carya, and reduced all the women to slavery. The captives, as a further mark of infamy, were forbidden to lay aside the robes in which they had decorated the conquerors' triumph; and the architects of the time, to perpetuate the memory of the transaction, made statues representing these women in the servile office of supporting entablatures. (See Architecture, i. 340.)

CASA, Giovanni della, an Italian poet and orator, of an ancient and noble family of Mugello, near Florence, was born 1503, studied at Bologna, Padua, Rome, and entered, as an ecclesiastic, into the service of the two cardinals Alessandro Farnese, the first of whom, in 1534, ascended the papal chair, under the name of Paul III. He rose through various offices in the church, till Paul IV made him his private secretary. He died probably in 1556. His most celebrated work is Galateo, ovvero de' Costumi, to which one, Degli uffizj, Communi tra gli Amici Superiori e Inferiori, forms a supplement. This last is a translation of his Latin treatise, De Officiis inter Potentiores et Tenuiores Amicos. The best and most complete edition of his works appeared at Venice, 1752, in 3 vols., 4to.

CASANOVA, Francis, a painter famous for his battle-pieces, born at London, 1730, went, while a boy, to Venice, where he applied himself to the art of painting. He afterwards obtained admission into the academy in Dresden, and painted several pieces for the prince Conde. The spirit and liveliness of his coloring and execution cannot be surpassed. At the request of Catharine of Russia, he painted, in Vienna, a piece representing the victory of this princess over the Turks, which she afterwards put up in her palace. He was constantly occupied with his art, and died at Brühl, near Vienna, 1805.-His brother John, likewise a painter, was born 1729, at London; died, 1795, at Dresden, where he was professor and superintendent in the academy of painting, and had instructed many able pupils in his art. His work on the Ancient Monuments of Art, published in Italian, and also in German (Leipsic, 1771), is still in esteem.

CASANOVA, John James de Seingalt; eldest brother of the preceding; born at Venice, 1725; known by his Memoirs as an original and gay-tempered man, who acted an interesting part in all situations, amongst all classes of society, and in all the large cities of Europe. His various adventures are related by himself in a most entertaining manner. They were first published, in part, at Leipsic, 1826, in a German translation. The French original has since appeared. His father, Cajetan John James, a descendant of the Spanish family of Palafox, falling in love with a dancer, turned actor, but afterwards united himself with the daughter of a shoemaker, Fanosi, who followed the profession of her husband. James Casanova, their eldest son, received the rudiments of his education in Padua, and made rapid progress in the Latin language, as well as in the other branches of learning. His ardent temperament, early developed, soon, however, involved him in many adventures, that served to sharpen his observation, and enlarge his knowledge of human nature. He studied law, and, in his 16th year, wrote two dissertations; one, De Testamentis, the other on the question, Utrum Hebræi possint constru ere novas Synagogas. His talent for shining in society introduced him, at Venice, into the select circles, in which a refined but frivolous tone of manners prevailed. The patriarch of Venice gave him the inferior ordination, and his first sermon was received with general applause. But he failed in his second; and from this period commences his restless

several works which have never been published, among which is a General History of the Indies, which was a great assistance to Antonio de Herrera in his history. All his works evince profound learning, and solid judgment and piety; and, notwithstanding his great inconsistency in regard to the Negroes, he must be regarded as a very benevolent man, and a lover of mankind.

CASAUBON, Isaac de (commonly called Casaubonus), born Feb. 18, 1559, at Geneva, of a family from Dauphiny, was educated by his father, a clergyman. In his 9th year, he spoke Latin fluently. In his 19th year, he entered the university at Geneva, where he studied jurisprudence, theology, and the Oriental languages, and, in 1582, succeeded Portus as professor of the Greek language. He here married the daughter of Henry Stephens, and published, every year, editions of Greek and Latin authors, with critical notes and translations. In 1596, he accepted a professorship of Greek and belles-lettres at Montpellier, but held it only two years. Henry IV invited him to Paris. His religious principles (the same as those for which his father had left his country), the jealousy of the other professors, and perhaps his rather unyielding character, were the occasion of many unpleasant occurrences, for which, however, he was indemnified by the office of royal librarian. After the death of Henry IV, he followed sir Henry Wotton, envoy extraordinary from James I, to England, where he was received with distinction, had two benefices and a pension conferred on him, and died at London, July 1, 1614. He was buried in Westminster abbey. Casaubon was a liberal theologian, a man of extensive learning, a good translator, and an excellent critic. As a critic, he has commented on Diogenes Laertius, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Suetonius, Persius, Polybius, Theocritus, Strabo, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Athenæus, Pliny the Younger, &c. Nearly all the ancient classics are indebted to his valuable researches. His profound dissertation on the satirical poetry of the Greeks and the satire of the Romans (De Satyrica Græcorum Poësi et Romanorum Satyra) deserves particular praise. His theological writings are of less value.

CASAUBON, Meric, son of the preceding, born at Geneva, 1599, likewise distinguished himself by his learning. He followed his father to England, and was made doctor of divinity at Oxford. He filled successively several offices in the

church, when the revolution, which brought Charles I to the scaffold, deprived him of his income. Still he rejected the proposal of Cromwell to write the history of his time, as also the invitation of queen Christina to live in Sweden. On the return of the Stuarts, he was rewarded for his loyalty by restoration to his office in the church, which he held till his death, 1671. His learning was various and extensive, but not so profound as his father's. He published, besides his theological works, observations on several clas sic authors; e. g., Terence, Epictetus, Florus, Polybius, &c.

CASCO BAY; a bay in Maine, between cape Elizabeth on W. S. W. and cape Small Point on E. N. E. Within these capes, which are about 20 miles apart, there are about 300 small islands; most of which are cultivated, and are much more productive than the main land on the coast of Maine. Portland harbor is on the W. side of the bay.

CASE, ACTION UPON THE. Actio super causam is a general action, given for the redress of a wrong done any man without force, and not especially provided for by law, in order to have satisfaction for damage. This is called an action on the case, because the whole cause or case is set down in the writ; and there is no other action given in the case, except where the plaintiff has his choice to bring this or another action. This action lies in a variety of instances; as for words spoken or written, which affect a person's life, reputation, office or trade, or tend to his loss of preferment in marriage or service, or to his disinheritance, or which occasion him any particular damage. Action on the case likewise lies upon an assumpsit. (q. v.) It lies, also, in all instances wherein no general action could be framed; e. g., against carriers; against a common innkeeper, for goods stolen in his house; for deceit in contracts, bargains and sales; for neglect or malfeasance; for injuries done in commons; for malicious prosecution and false arrests; against sheriffs, for default in executing writs, permitting escapes, &c.; for conspiracy, nuisances, &c. &c.

CASE, in grammar. (See Language.) CASE-HARDENING is a process by which iron is superficially converted into steel, in such articles as require the toughness of the former, conjointly with the hardness of the latter substance. The articles intended for case-hardening are first manufactured in iron, and are then placed in an iron box, with vegetable or animal

coals in powder, to undergo cementation. Immersion of the heated pieces into water hardens the surface, which is afterwards polished. Coarse files and gunbarrels are among the articles most commonly case-hardened.

CASEMATES (from the Spanish casa, a house, and matare, to kill), in fortification; vaults which are proof against bombs, under the main wall, particularly in bastions, for the purpose of defending the moat of a fortification, also for making countermines. They serve, at the same time, as a place for keeping the heayy ordnance, and, in case of necessity, as habitations for the garrison.

CASE-SHOT, in artillery, is formed by putting a quantity of small iron balls into a cylindrical tin box, called a canister, that just fits the bore of the gun. In case of necessity, the canister is filled with broken pieces of iron, nails, stones, &c. The case is closed at both ends by wood. Shot of this sort are thrown from cannons and howitzers. In sieges, sometimes, instead of cases, bags are used. This kind of shot is very injurious to the enemy, because the balls contained in the canister spread, diverging in proportion to the distance. The amount of divergence is, to the distance which the shot reaches, generally in the proportion of 1 to 10; thus, at the distance of 600 paces, they make a circle of 60 paces diameter. The canisters used in the Prussian army contain balls of 1, 13, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12 ounces and of 1 pound. The distance which the shot will reach varies according to the weight and number of the balls. A sixpounder shoots canister balls of 1 ounce from 200 to 500 paces; twelve and twenty-four-pounders shoot balls of 1 pound 800 to 1000 paces. The number of the balls varies according to their weight.

CASES, Emanuel, count of. (See Las Cases.)

CASHMERE (17,291 sq. miles, 2,000,000 inhabitants) in Hindostan, now a province of the Afghan state of Cabul, in Asia, is a very celebrated valley, surrounded by the gigantic mountains of Asia, the Himalaya and Hindoo Koh, and traversed by the river Behat or Chelum (formerly Hydaspes). From three sides, seven passes only lead to this region; to the east, the Himalaya presents an insurmountable barrier of snow. The splendor and sublimity of the diadem of snow-capped mountains, the beauty and richness of the hills, which form the ascent to the higher peaks, it is impossible to describe. The elevated situ47

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ation of the valley, and the mountain of snow which surround it, render the climate rather cold; but it is, on the whole, moderate and mild. This region, so rich in romantic scenery, is watered by numerous streams, and is blessed with an abundance of the finest productions. The Asiatics, therefore, call it the paradise of India, the flower-garden, and the garden of eternal spring. The hills are covered with forests and Alpine pastures; at the foot of these are fields of corn; along the sides of the rivers, rice is planted; rich orchards extend over the foremost range of hills; mulberry trees are cultivated in abundance, for the support of silk-worms, and are entwined with vines, from whose grapes wine, very similar to Madeira, is prepared. The fruits of warm climates do not ripen here. The valley is famous for its flowers, with which all the gardens and meadows abound. Violets, roses, narcissuses, and innumerable European flowers, besides many that are not known in Europe, grow wild. The inhabitants are Hindoos, of the religion of Brama, although they are under the dominion of the Afghans, who profess the Mohammedan religion. Their language is a dialect of the Sanscrit. They manufacture their celebrated shawls in great perfection. The wool which they use for this purpose comes from Thibet and Tartary, in which countries, only, the goat, from which it is taken, is said to thrive. About 80,000 shawls are made yearly, in 16,000 looms, each of which employs 3 workmen. The capital, Cashmere (likewise Serinagur), the largest town in the whole empire of Afghanistan, is situated on the Behat, and contains 200,000 inhabitants.

Cashmere Goat, a nobler species of the common goats, is descended from the goat of Thibet, which pastures on the Himalaya. The climate in Thibet is subject to sudden changes. There is little rain, but much snow, as the cold in winter is below the freezing point. Thibet is situated at the porthern descent of the Himalaya mountains, and Cashmere at the southern; hence the latter is a little warmer than Thibet. In Thibet, this goat is a domestic animal. It is not allowed a very luxuriant pasture. The favorite food of these animals is buds, aromatic plants, rue and heath. The people of Thibet give their goats, at least once a week, some salt, which has always proved a useful accompaniment to the customary food of these animals. If they are transferred from their cold, mountainous abode into a warmer country, the

natural consequence follows, that the wool becomes inferior in quantity and fineness. It grows, also, very slowly in the warm part of the year, and more vigorously as the cold season approaches. The head of the Asiatic goat is large, the horns situated backwards, and somewhat curved, the legs slender. The colder the region where the animal pastures, the heavier is its fleece. Proper food and careful tending increase the fineness of the wool. Yearlings, as in the case with the Merino sheep, afford the finest wool. A full-grown goat yields not more than 8 ounces. The goats which pasture in the highest vales of Thibet have a bright ochre color. In lower grounds, the color becomes of a yellowish-white, and, still farther downwards, entirely white. The highest mountains of the Himalaya, inhabitable by man, contain also a kind of goats with black wool, which, in India, and in the mountainous country of the goats, obtains the highest price, as a material for shawls. The goats of Thibet and Cashmere have the fine curled wool close to the skin, just as the under-hair of our common goat lies below the coarse, upper-hair. The wool is shorn in the spring, shortly before the warm season-the time when the animal, in its natural state, seeks thorns and hedges in order to free itself from the burden of its warm covering. All the hard and long hairs are picked out most carefully. The wool, thus purified, is washed, first in a warm solution of potash, and afterwards in cold water, in which process felting must be carefully avoided. It is then bleached upon the grass, and carded for spinning. The shawl-wool is three times dyedbefore carding, after spinning, and in the shawl. The Asiatics avoid spinning the wool hard, in order that the shawl may be soft. They use a spindle, which consists of a ball of clay, with an iron wire attached. The finger and the thumb of the spinner are kept smooth by steatite pow

der.

A large shawl, of the finest quality, requires 5 pounds of the wool; one of inferior quality, from 3 to 4 pounds. Main, in London, has invented a machine, which spins this wool, in a very simple way, finer than can be done by the best spindles of Thibet, and, at the same time, of a firmer thread. The flesh of the Cashmere goat tastes as well as that of the common one; and its milk is as rich, if it is well tended. Since 1820, this species has been introduced into France, and succeeds very well. The enterprising baron Ternaux (q. v.) ordered 1289

of these goats to be brought to France (1820), under the care of the celebrated professor of Oriental languages in Paris, Amadée Joubert. Joubert found these goats already spread from Cashmere to the Ural, over Bucharia, in Independent Tartary, purchased them in the deserts there, and transported them over the Volga along the coast to Theodosia, in the Crimea, where they were put on board vessels to be carried to France. On the voyage, which lasted a long time, a great number died: there remained, however, more than 400 healthy animals, which were sent from Toulon and Marseilles, partly to the Pyrenees of Roussillon, partly to the lime-hills of Provence, and to the pastures of Alsatia and Rambouillet.

CASHNA, or CASSINA, or KASSINA; a city in Africa, capital of a kingdom, between Bornou and Timbuctoo; 220 miles W.N. W. Bornou, 690 E. S. E. Timbuctoo; lon. 11° 34′ E.; lat. 16° 30′ N. A large proportion of the country of Cashna consists of land of great fertility, interspersed with arid wastes. Cashna is level, and said to contain 1000 towns and villages. The monarch is called sultan of all Soudan, i. e. Negroland. The principal articles of traffic are senna, gold dust, slaves, cotton cloths, goat skins, ox and buffalo hides, and civet. Cashna has no salt lakes or mines, but is supplied with salt from Bornou.

CASHOO; the common name of the anacardium occidentale of Lin. ; a native of Bahar. The fruit of the tree is called cashoo-nut. The expressed juice makes a pleasant wine; and an aromatic and medicinal drug is prepared by a decoetion and maceration of several parts of the tree, afterwards consolidated by evapora tion. The Indians chew it. The Europeans employ it as a digestive, and a soother of coughs.

CASIMIR III, the Great, king of Poland, son of Uladislaus Loketek, distinguished himself by his valor, under the reign of his father, who had commissioned him to take revenge on the knights of the Teatonic order; and, that he might learn the art of governing, made him regent of Great Poland. In 1333, he ascended the throne, and had many contests with the Teutonic knights, made himself master of Little Russia, which had formerly belonged to Poland, conquered Silesia, repelled the Tartars, who had advanced to Poland, and the Bohemians, who attempted to gain possession of Silesia, as a fief of Bohemia. He died in 1370, without children, having named a son of the