the wing become tired, and the pigeon be compelled to alight. A pigeon of this kind can go a distance of upwards of 1000 parasangs (more than 2700 English miles) in a day. There were similar posts in Egypt, in 1450, for which columbaries were prepared in towers, erected at certain distances for the public security.This custom is, however, not confined to the nations of the East. Decius Brutus, according to the elder Pliny's account, sent despatches from Modena by pigeons; and in modern times, they were made use of, during the Dutch war, by the inhabitants of Haerlem, when besieged in 1573, and in Leyden, in 1574. It is also well known, that some merchants in Paris and Amsterdam employ carrier-pigeons, in order that the course of exchange and the prices of stocks, in Paris, may be known as soon as possible in Amsterdam. CARRO, Giovanni di; a physician of Milan, who settled in Vienna. He is celebrated for his efforts in spreading inoculation, as a protection from the small-pox, in Germany, Poland, Hungary and Russia. He found means to overcome even the prejudices of the Turks, by sending to lord Elgin, at Constantinople, in 1800, a quantity of virus, together with a work of his, translated into Turkish, on inoculation. All the attempts of the English to introduce inoculation into India had been hitherto unsuccessful, because the virus had always been spoiled on the way. Carro procured the matter from Lombardy cows, for doctor Harford, at Bagdad. It retained all its strength, and was the means of imparting the benefits of kinepock inoculation to India, which the Indians consider as derived from a sacred cow, and to which they have given the name of amurtum (immortality). Carro's Observations et Experiences sur la Vaccination, avec une Planche colorée (Vienna, 1801 and 1802), and his translation (Vienna, 1802) of an English work, by J. J. Loy, on the origin of the kine-pock virus, are very valuable works. In the Bibliotheque Britannique are some letters deserving of notice, written by him, particularly one, dated Aug. 27, 1803, on the antipestilential nature of the kine-pock matter.

CARROLL, John, first Catholic bishop of the U. States, was born in Maryland, in the year 1734. His parents were Catholics of distinguished respectability, and sent him, at the age of 13, to the college of St. Omer's, in Flanders, where he remained for six years, when he was transferred to the colleges of Liege and Bruges. In 1769, he was ordained a priest, and

soon after became a Jesuit. In 1770, he accompanied the present lord Stourton, the son of an English Catholic nobleman, on a tour through Europe, in the capacity of private tutor; and, on his return to Bruges, in 1773, accepted a professorship in the college. Shortly afterwards, he was on the point of going back to his native country; but his voyage was prevented by the intelligence of the entire suppression of the Jesuits by the pope; and he retired to England, where he resided until 1775, when he returned to America. His stay in Europe was prolonged in order that he might assist his brethren in procuring a mitigation of the severe sentence that had been passed upon them. He acted as secretary-general to the dispersed fathers in their remonstrances with the courts, by which they had been persecuted. Upon his arrival in Maryland, he entered upon the duties of a parish priest. In 1776, at the solicitation of congress, he accompanied doctor Franklin, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Samuel Chase, on a mission to Canada, designed to induce the people of that province to preserve a neutral attitude in the war between England and the colonies, but was unsuccessful. The Roman Catholic clergy of the U. States having requested from the pope the establishment of a spiritual hierarchy here, in preference to being under the superintendence of one in England, Mr. Carroll was appointed vicargeneral in 1786, when he fixed his abode in Baltimore. In 1789, he was named first Catholic bishop of the U. States, and went to England, in the summer of 1790, where he was consecrated. In the same year, he returned to Baltimore, and, as the seat of his episcopal see was established in that city, assumed the title of bishop of Baltimore. He was universally esteemed and beloved for the exemplary manner in which he discharged his duties, the mildness and courtesy of his manners, and the sanctity of his life. He lived in friendly communion with persons of other sects, his character being entirely devoid of intolerance. A few years before his demise, he was elevated to the archiepiscopal dignity. He died Dec. 3, 1815, in the 81st year of his age.

CARRON; a village of Scotland, on the banks of a stream of the same name, in Stirlingshire, and about three miles from the shore of the Forth. Its extensive iron-foundery is one of the most noted in Great Britain. This was established in 1760, and now employs nearly 2000 men. There are about 20 furnaces, and

many kinds of iron articles are made in great quantities, as heavy pieces of ordnance, cylinders for steam-engines, pumps, boilers, wheels, with all kinds of ponderous apparatus used in the arts. That species of ordnance called a carronade, used in the navy, derived its name from being first made here. Immense numbers of shot and shells, of all sizes, are annually sent from Carron. Carron is about 2 miles north-east of Falkirk, and 26 in the same direction from Edinburgh. The banks of the river Carron were the boundary of the Roman empire in Britain; for the wall of Antoninus stood within a short distance, and ran parallel to them for several miles. Two mounds, one of them 50 feet in height, called the hills of Dunipail, rise about the middle of its course. Tradition affirms that they were monuments of a peace between the Romans and Caledonians, and that they take their name from dun, a hill, and par, peace. It is more probable that they are barrows. CARRONADES (from the river Carron, in Scotland, where they were first made); a sort of artillery, resembling howitzers. They are of very large caliber, and carry balls, shells or cartouches. They are much lighter than common cannon, and have a chamber for the powder, like mortars. They are mostly used on board of ships, in close engagements, from the poop and forecastle. Sometimes they are employed in fortifications. They have been cast from 12 to 68 pounders. They were first used in the North American revolutionary war.

CARROT (daucus carota, Linnæus) is a biennial plant, a native of Britain. The leaves are pinnatifid, and much cut. The plant rises to the height of two feet, and produces white flowers, succeeded by rough, hispid seeds. The root of the plant, in its wild state, is small, dry, sticky, of a white color, and strong-flavored; but the root of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and of a red-yellow or pale strawcolor, and shows remarkably the improvement which may be effected by cultivation. Though long known as a garden plant, it is comparatively of recent introduction in agriculture. It appears to have been cultivated from an early period in Germany and Flanders, and introduced from the latter country to Kent and Suffolk early in the 16th century. The various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known. But, although it contains much nutriment, it is difficult of digestion, particularly if eaten raw or imperfectly boiled. Carrots are an excellent fodder for

cattle and horses, either alone or mixed with hay; and, if given to cows in winter or the early part of spring, they are said to cause a great increase of milk, which will have a much less offensive taste and smell than when they are fed on turnips. Hogs thrive well upon carrots boiled with their wash. In some parts of England, this vegetable has been cultivated as a winter food for deer; and the tops have even been made into hay. Carrots contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, and various but unsuccessful experiments have been made to extract sugar from them. They have been more advantageously employed in distillation. Ten pounds weight of carrots will yield about half a pint of very strong ardent spirit; and the carrots produced by an acre of ground, amounting to 20 tons, have been known to yield 240 gallons of spirit. A sirup made of these roots, and clarified with the whites of eggs, has been found useful for several purposes. An infusion of the seeds, and the expressed juice of the roots, are said to afford relief in fits of the gravel. A marmalade of carrots has been used with success in seascurvy, and a poultice prepared from them is sometimes employed in cancerous ulcers. Crickets are so fond of these roots, that they may easily be destroyed by making a paste of flour, powdered ar senic and scraped carrots, and placing this near their habitation. Parkinson informs us that, in his day, ladies wore carrot leaves in the place of feathers. In winter, an elegant ornament is sometimes formed by cutting off a section from the head or thick end of a carrot, containing the bud, and placing it in a shallow vessel with water. Young and delicate leaves unfold themselves, forming a radiated tuft of a very handsome appearance, heightened by contrast with the season of the year.

CARRYING TRADE. (See Commerce.) CARSTARES, William, a Scotch divine of political eminence, was born in 1649, at Cathcart, near Glasgow, where his father was minister. He pursued his studies at the university of Edinburgh, whence he was removed to that of Utrecht, was introduced to the prince of Orange, and intrusted with all his views in regard to Britain. He, however, returned to Scotland, with the view of entering the minis try, but, after receiving a license to preach, resolved to return to Holland. As he was to pass through London, he was employed by Argyle and his party to treat with the English exclusionists, and became privy

to the rye-house plot. On the discovery of that conspiracy, he was apprehended. After a rigorous confinement in irons, he was subjected to the torture, and endured this trial with great firmness; but, being afterwards deluded with the hopes of a full pardon, and assured that his answers should never be made evidence against any one, he submitted to make a judicial declaration. The privy council violated their engagement, by producing his evidence in court against his friend, Mr. Baillie, of Jerviswood. Being released, he returned to Holland, and was received by the prince of Orange as a sufferer in his cause. The prince made him one of his own chaplains, and procured his election to the office of minister of the English congregation at Leyden. He accompanied the prince in his expedition, and always remained about his person, both at home and abroad. During this reign, he was the chief agent between the church of Scotland and the court, and was very instrumental in the establishment of the presbytery, to which William was averse. On the death of William, he was no longer employed on public business; but Anne continued him her chaplainroyal, and made him principal of the university of Edinburgh. When the union of the two kingdoms was agitated, he took a decided part in its favor. He did not long survive this event, dying in 1715, at the age of 66. The memory of Carstares is, for the most part, revered by his countrymen as that of an enlightened patriot; and few men of active power and influence have steered between parties more beneficially and ably.

CARSTENS, Asmus Jacob, a distinguished painter, born at St. Jurgen, near Sleswic, in 1754, died at Rome in 1798. He studied at Copenhagen, where he produced his first picture-the Death of Eschylus. In 1783, he set out for Rome; but, after having seen some works of Julio Romani and Leonardo da Vinci, was obliged to return to Germany, from want of means, and ignorance of the Italian language. In Lübec, he lived almost five years by painting likenesses. A piece, containing more than 200 figures the Fall of the Angels-procured him the place of a professor in the academy at Berlin. In 1792, he went to Rome. His picture of Megapont was compared to the productions of Raphael and Michael Angelo. His subjects were almost all taken from Homer, Pindar, Sophocles, Eschylus, Shakspeare and Ossian. In Carstens' works, we find that effort to attain cor

rectness of form and outline, gracefulness of attitude, and loftiness and vigor of expression, by which the works of the ancients are distinguished; but they frequently exhibit a certain harshness, arising from too close imitation. He was often defective in anatomy and perspective, and, having begun late to paint in oil, was unacquainted with the secrets of coloring. (See Fernow.)

CARTE, Thomas, an English historian, was born at Dunmoor, Warwickshire, in 1686. He was admitted at University college, Oxford, in 1698, and was afterwards incorporated at Cambridge, where he took his degree of M. A. in 1706. His first publication was entitled the Irish Massacre set in a true Light, &c. Incurring suspicions during the rebellion of 1715, a warrant was issued for his apprehension, which he eluded by concealment in the house of a clergyman at Coleshil. He subsequently acted as secretary to bishop Atterbury; and, as it was supposed that he was concerned in the conspiracy imputed to that intriguing prelate, he was charged with high treason, and a reward of £1000 was offered for his apprehension. He was again successful in making his escape, and, reaching France, he resided there several years under the name of Philips. Having obtained various introductions to persons of influence and learning, he obtained free access to the principal libraries, and employed himself in collecting materials for an English edition of the History of Thuanus. At length, queen Caroline, the liberal patroness of literary merit of every party, procured leave for his return to England. His important work, the Life of James Duke of Ormond, was published in 3 vols, folio, 1735—6. This work gained him great reputation, especially with the tory party, and led him to meditate a general history of Eng land, as a counterbalance to the tendency of that of Rapin de Thoyras, which the tories charged with error and partiality. In 1744, he was arrested, under a suspension of the habeas corpus act, and examined, on a suspicion of being employed by the Pretender. Nothing, however, appearing against him, he was discharged. The first volume of his history, in folie, concluded with the death of king John, and might have been very well received, had not the author materially injured the credit of his work, and his own reputation as a man of sense, by the unnecessary insertion of a note, containing the ridiculous story of the cure of one Christopher Lovel, who went from Somersetshire to Paris to

be touched for the king's evil by the Pretender. Still he proceeded with his work, and published two more volumes, in 1750 and 1752; the fourth, which brought down the history to 1654, not appearing until after his death. The character of this work is deservedly very high for useful and elaborate research, for which qualities it has risen greatly in esteem, since the obligations of Hume to it have been rendered apparent. In point of style, it is mean; and the prejudices of the author, who was utterly destitute of the philosophical impartiality requisite for a historian, are every where conspicuous: but its diligence and exactness, with regard to facts, and the intimate knowledge of original authors displayed by the writer, will always render it valuable. Mr. Carte died in April, 1754. He is the author of several works besides those already mentioned. He was a man of indefatigable industry, cheerful and entertaining in conversation, but very slovenly and ungainly in his appearance.

CARTEL; an agreement for the delivery of prisoners or deserters: also, a written challenge to a duel.-Cartel-Ship; a ship commissioned, in time of war, to exchange prisoners; also to carry any proposal between hostile powers. She must carry no cargo, ammunition, or implements of war, except a single gun for signals,

CARTER, Elizabeth, an English lady of great learning, was the daughter of doctor Nicholas Carter, a clergyman in Kent, and was born in 1717. She was educated by her father, and soon became mistress of Latin, Greek, French and German; to which she afterwards added Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and even Arabic. Several of her poetical attempts appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, before she attained her 17th year, and these procured her much celebrity. In 1739, she translated the critique of Crousaz on Pope's Essay on Man; and, in the same year, gave a translation of Algarotti's explanation of Newton's philosophy, for ladies. In 1749, she commenced her translation of Epictetus. In 1791, Miss Carter had an interview with queen Charlotte, by the queen's own desire, and, during the remainder of her life, occasionally received visits from different members of the royal family, who paid her particular attention. She died in 1806, in the 89th year of her age, and lies interred in the buryingground of Grosvenor chapel. The year following her death, her Memoirs were published, and a new edition of her poems; and, subsequently, her correspond

ence with Miss Talbot (in 2 vols., 4to.), and letters to Mrs. Montague and Mrs. Vesey (4 vols. 8vo.), all which are much esteemed.

CARTES, DES. (See Descartes.)

CARTHAGE; the most famous city of Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich and powerful commercial republic. Dido (q. v.), fleeing from Tyre, came to this country, where the inhabitants, according to tradition, agreed to give her as much land as could be compassed by an ox-hide. Dido cut the hide into small thongs, with which she enclosed a large piece of land. Here she built the castle of Carthage, and gave the newly-founded state excellent institutions. The first period of the history of Carthage extends to the beginning of the war with Syracuse, from B. C. 878 to 480, Carthage extended its conquests in Africa and Sardinia, carried on a commercial war with the people of Marseilles and the Etruscans, and concluded a commercial treaty with Rome, B. C. 509, the original document of which, on stone, is still extant. The Carthaginians then directed their chief attention to the conquest of Sicily, with which commences their second and most splendid period, extending to the beginning of their war with the Romans, B. C. 265. When Xerxes undertook his campaign into Greece, the Carthaginians made a league with hin against Gelon, king of Syracuse, but were defeated at Himera, B. C. 480, and obliged to sue for peace, and abstain from the practice of offering human sacrifices. (See Gelon.) In the war with Hiero, the next king, the Carthaginians conquered the cities Selinus, Himera and Agrigentum. Dionysius the elder obtained a temporary peace. But, after Timoleon had delivered Syracuse and Sicily from the yoke of tyranny, the Carthaginians were peculiarly unfortunate, Contagious diseases and frequent mutinies reduced the strength of the city. When Sicily suffered under the tyranny of Agathocles, Carthage engaged in a war with him, and was soon attacked and severely pressed by the usurper. After the death of Agathocles, Carthage once more took part in the commerce of Sicily, when difficulties broke out there with their auxiliaries, the Mamertines. The Romans took advantage of these troubles to expel the Carthaginians from Sicily, although they had previously received assistance from them (in 275) in a war against Pyrrhus of Epirus, in Sicily and Lower Italy. Here begins the third period of Carthaginian history, embracing the thrice re

peated struggle for dominion between Rome and Carthage, in the interval between 264 and 146 B. C. The first Punic war (see Punic) continued 23 years. The fleets and armies of Carthage were vanquished. By the peace (B. Č. 241), the Carthaginians lost all their possessions in Sicily. Upon this, the mercenary forces, whose wages could not be paid by the exhausted treasury of the city, took up arms. Hamilcar Barcas conquered them, and restored the Carthaginian power in Africa. Notwithstanding the peace with Carthage, the Romans took possession of Sardinia in 228, where the mercenary troops of Carthage had revolted. Hamilcar, who was at the head of the democratic party, now undertook the conquest of Spain, whose rich mines tempted the Carthaginians. For the success of this enterprise, within 17 years, Carthage was indebted to the family of Barcas, which could boast of the glorious names of Hamilcar, Asdrubal and Hannibal. To secure the possession of this acquisition, Asdrubal founded New Carthage (now Carthagena), the most powerful of all the Carthaginian colonies. The second Punic war (218-201 B. C.), notwithstanding the abilities of the general, ended with the subjugation of Carthage. Hannibal, neglected by his countrymen, and weakened by a victory that cost him much blood, was obliged to leave Italy, in order to hasten to the assistance of Carthage, which was threatened by the Romans. The battle at Zama, in the neighborhood of Carthage, resulted in favor of the Romans. Scipio granted the city peace under the severest conditions. Carthage ceded Spain, delivered up all her ships of war except 10, paid 10,000 talents (about $10,000,000), and promised to engage in no war without the consent of the Romans. Besides this, Masinissa, the ally of Rome, and implacable enemy of Carthage, was placed on the Numidian throne. This king, under the protection of Rome, deprived the Carthaginians of the best part of their possessions, and destroyed their trade in the interior of Afri

ed it a second time, and few traces now remain of it, except an aqueduct.

The government of Carthage, according to the common opinion, in its origin, was monarchical; afterwards, it is not known how nor when, it became republican. The Phoenician states, likewise, had kings, and their government, too, was republican. As no distinct period is mentioned when the government received its form, the constitution seems to have been gradually formed, mostly by and through domestic troubles. The government was composed of the suffetes, the senate, the tribu nal of the hundred, and the freemen. The suffetes were at the head of affairs, and were commonly called kings, by the Greek authors, and consuls by the Romans. They were permanent officers, and not, like the Roman consuls, chosen for short periods. The Carthaginian senate seems to have been a permanent and numerous body, in which there was a smaller committee, composed, probably, of the elder members. As regards the power of the senate, and its relation to the people, we know that the former had the right of deliberating beforehand on all affairs that were to be referred to the people. If the suffetes agreed with the senate, the business might be referred to the people, or not, as these magistrates saw fit; but if they disagreed, it was always referred to the people; and every citizen had the right of expressing his opinions freely. War and peace, likewise, depended on the decision of the senate. The tribunal of the hundred was chosen from the most respectable families, and was the highest political tribunal. seems, also, to have been in possession of supreme civil jurisdiction. A highly remarkable peculiarity of the Carthaginian government was, the separation of the civil and military power at so early a period. The suffetes were never their generals. The latter were chosen by the people, and, in time of war, had unlimited power in regard to military operations. Affairs of state, on the contrary, aliances, and the like, were administered by a committee of the senate, which was associated with the generals. In this respect, the Carthaginian constitution was superior to the Roman, in which the union of the two powers cost the state its freedom. The religion of Carthage was a branch of the worship of the stars and of fire, which prevailed in the East. Concerning Moloch (Baal or the Sun), the supreme god of the Phoenicians, the human sacrifices, and other peculiarities

It