head of a province, in the Spanish colonies in South America, which was divided into viceroyalties and captain-generalships (capitanias-generales); thus Chili was a captain-generalship. The captain-generals were not placed under the viceroys, but accountable only to the king, through the council of the Indies. The captaingeneral of Venezuela, for instance, had no connexion with the viceroy of New Grenada. They decided, in the last instance, on all legislative, judicial and military affairs, and presided in the real audiencia. The time during which these governors remained in power was limited to a few years, probably in order to prevent them from becoming too powerful. The consequence was, that the colonies were oppressed the more to enrich the governors, for rich every one was when he left his office.

CAPTURE. (See Prize.)

CAPUA; a fortified place in the Terra di Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples, on the Volturno; the see of an archbishop; contains a military school, and 7300 inhabitants; one league distant from the ancient Capua, out of the ruins of which it was partly built, in the 9th century; lon. 14° 8 E.; lat. 41° 5′ N.; 15 miles north of Naples. There are 12 convents in this city. Jan 11, 1797, it was taken by the French, and, in 1820, it did not resist the Austrians. The ancient Capua, one of the finest and most agreeable cities of Italy, was so important, that it was compared to Rome and Carthage. Hannibal went into quarters here, after the battle of Cannæ, and promised to make the city the capital of Italy. Capua therefore formed an alliance with him, but was reconquered after five years. The Vandals laid it waste. Narses restored it, but the Lombards devastated it again. There are still many ruins here. Around Capua lie the fertile Campanian fields, which produced three crops a year. Living was cheap here, and the climate healthy, so that it was a favorite place of resort of the Romans.

CAPUCHINS. (See Franciscans.) CAPUT-MORTUUM (dead head); a technical expression, in chemistry, for the deposit in the retort, arising from dry disllation; because, if the operation is continued, volatile substances cease to be given off.

CAQUETA; a large river in South America, which rises about 60 miles south of Popayan. Being enlarged by the addition of several streams, it takes a course due east about 300 miles, when it divides into three branches, one of which falls into the Iça; another takes the name of Yupura, 43

VOL. II.

and the third forms the principal stream of the Negro.

CARABINE; formerly, a kind of guns, which are now out of use. At present, short guns, used by the cavalry, have this name. Tacticians entertain very different opinions respecting this kind of arms. Some think that they are of no use whatever, as the aim from on horseback is extremely uncertain. In some armies, every third man of certain regiments of cavalry is armed with a carabine. The word carabine is found in all European languages, with different endings only. Many derive the word from Calabria, which, for a long time, was famous for a certain light cavalry. The transformation of the into r would not be extraordinary. Du Fresne derives the word from a kind of arms called chavarina, of which mention is made in the 14th century.

CARABOBO; a province of Colombia, forming, according to the law of June 23, 1824, with the province Caracas, the department of Venezuela. The residence of the governor of Carabobo is Valencia. This name has been rendered famous by the battle of Carabobo,' which was decisive of the independence of Colombia. It was fought June 24, 1821, soon after the armistice concluded between Bolivar and Morillo had expired. Bolivar, having formed a junction with Paez in Varinas, advanced to attack the Spanish general La Torre, who had taken a strong position upon the heights commanding the only pass by which his army could be approached. The battle was commenced by Paez, who led on his division in person, and, by the valor and impetuosity of himself and his followers, drove the Spaniards from their intrenchments, and thus gained a complete victory, before the second division, under general Cedeño, came up. Of all the troops, the English, in the service of the republic, distinguished themselves most: they chiefly decided the day, and suffered most severely. The battalion in which most of the English and Irish served received the name of battalion of Carabobo. Caracas, La Guayra, Carthagena and Cumaná, and all that portion of Venezuela which is dependent upon them, were permanently secured to the patriots by this victory. (See Columbia ii., 495, 724.)

CARACALLA, Antoninus Bassianus, eldest son of the emperor Severus, was born at Lyons, A. D. 188, and appointed by his father his colleague in the government, at the age of 13 years. Nevertheless, he attempted his life. Severus died A. D. 211.

He was succeeded by Caracalla and Geta. The two brothers, from their earliest years, hated one another inveterately. After a campaign against the Caledonians, they concluded a disgraceful peace. They then wished to divide the empire between them; but their design was opposed by their mother, Julia, and by the principal men of the state. Caracalla now resolved to get rid of his brother, by causing him to be assassinated. After many unsuccessful attempts, he pretended to desire a reconciliation, and requested his mother to procure him an interview with his brother in private in her chamber. Geta appeared, and was stabbed in his mother's arins, A. D. 212, by several centurions, who had received orders to this effect. The prætorian guards were prevailed upon, by rich donations, to proclaim Caracalla sole emperor, and to declare Geta an enemy to the state. The tyrant caused Geta's children and friends to be put to death. (See Papinian.) Dion estimates the number of victims at 20,000. He afterwards executed many of the murderers of his brother, and caused him to be placed among the gods. His pattern was Sylla, whose tomb he restored and adorned. Like this dictator, he enriched his soldiers with the most extravagant largesses, which extortion enabled him to furnish. Cruel as Caligula and Nero, but weaker than either, he regarded the senate and the people with equal contempt and hatred. From motives of avarice, he gave all the free men of the empire the right of citizenship, and was the first who received Egyptians into the senate. Alexander, whose habits he imitated, and Achilles, were the objects of his deepest veneration. He went to Ilium to visit the grave of Homer's hero, and poisoned his favorite freedman, named Festus, to imitate Achilles, in his grief for Patroclus. His conduct in his campaigns in Gaul, where he committed all sorts of cruelties, was still more degrading. He marched over the Rhine to the countries of the Catti and Alemanni. The Catti defeated him, and permitted him to repass the river only on condition of paying them a large sum of money. He marched through the land of the Alemanni as an ally, and built several fortifications. He then called together the young men of the tribe, as if he intended to take them into his service, and caused his own troops to surround them, and cut them in pieces. For this barbarous exploit, he assumed the name Alemannicus. In Dacia he gained some advantages over the Goths. He signed a

His

treaty of peace at Antioch with Artabanus, the Parthian king, who submitted to all his demands. He invited to Antioch Abgares, the king of Edessa, an ally of the Romans, loaded him with chains, and took possession of his states. He exercised the same treachery towards Vologeses, king of Armenia; but the Armenians flew to arms, and repulsed the Romans. After this, Caracalla went to Alexandria, to punish the people of the city for ridiculing him. While preparations were making for a great massacre, he offered hecatombs to Serapis, and visited the tomb of Alexander, on which he left his imperial ornaments, by way of offering. He afterwards devoted the inhabitants, for several days and nights, to plunder and butchery, and seated himself, in order to have a view of the bloody spectacle, on the top of the temple of Serapis, where he consecrated the dagger which he had drawn, some years before, against his brother. desire to triumph over the Parthians induced him to violate the peace, under the pretence that Artabanus had refused him his daughter in marriage. He found the country undefended, ravaged it, marched through Media, and approached the capital. The Parthians, who had retired beyond the Tigris to the mountains, were preparing to attack the Romans, the following year, with all their forces. Caracalla returned without delay to Mesopotamia, without having even seen the Parthians. When the senate received from him information of the submission of the East, they decreed him a triumph, and the surname Parthicus. Being informed of the warlike preparations of the Parthians, he prepared to renew the contest; but Macrinus, the pretorian prefect, whom he had offended, assassinated him at Edessa, A. D. 217, on his way to the temple of Lunus. Caracalla erected at Rome some splendid monuments, magnificent baths, which bear his name, and a triumphal arch, in commemoration of the achievements of Severus.

CARACAS; a province, which, with the province of Carabobo, constitutes, according to the law of June 23, 1824, the department of Venezuela, one of the 12 departments of Colombia. (See Venezuela.) The city of Caracas, or Leon de Caracas, is the capital of the department of Venezuela, formerly a captain-generalship; lon. 67° 5 W.; lat. 10° 31′ N. In 1812, the population was estimated at 50,000. March 26 of that year, the city was partly destroyed by an earthquake, and nearly 12,000 persons were buried in the ruins.

By the political events which followed this catastrophe, the population of this ill-fated city was reduced, in four or five years, to less than 25,000. The city is situated five leagues from the sea, from which it is separated by a chain of mountains, at an elevation of 3000 feet above the ocean. A good road traverses the mountains to the port La Guayra. Caracas carries on a considerable trade. The greatest part of the productions of the whole province, consisting principally of cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, sarsaparilla, and the Varinas tobacco, is brought here for sale, or to be exchanged for European manufactures and productions. The temperature is generally between 77° and 90° Fahr. in the day, and between 68° and 72° at night; but this general mildness is connected with great fluctuations in the weather. Humboldt, among the vapors of November and December, could sometimes hardly fancy himself in one of the temperate valleys of the torrid zone, the weather rather resembling that of the north of Germany. Caracas is the seat of the intendant of Venezuela, and has a college, a court of justice, nine churches, and five convents. The streets are straight and well built, intersecting each other at right-angles, at a distance of about 300 feet. The inhabitants consist of whites, descendants of Spaniards, free colored people, a few slaves, and Indians. The first are either merchants, planters, professional or military men, very proud, and disdaining all kinds of labor. The women are considered very handsome, having large black eyes, full of expression, jet-black hair, and fine complexions; but they are careless of their figures. They seldom leave their houses except to go to mass, when they wear the long veils called mantillas, covering nearly the whole body. They possess considerable natural talent and vivacity, but little or no accomplishments.Caracas, as is well known, has been conspicuous throughout the revolution of Venezuela and New Grenada against Spain.

CARACCI. (See Carracci.)

CARACCIOLI, Louis Antoine de; born in 1721, at Paris, of an ancient and distinguished Neapolitan family. His talents for conversation procured him a distinguished reception, in Rome, from Benedict XIV and Clement XIII. He afterwards went to Germany and Poland. After having educated the children of prince Rzewuski, in the latter country, he returned to Paris, and wrote his Lettres du Pape Clément XIV (Ganganelli), which display a kind spirit, a benevolent

philosophy, and fine taste. They also contain intelligent observations on many situations of life. For a long time, they were thought to be the genuine productions of the pope, and excited the greatest interest in France, and throughout Europe. He died in 1803.

CARACCIOLI, marquis de, the friend of Marmontel and D'Alembert, born in 1711, was, about the middle of the 18th century, Neapolitan ambassador in London and Paris. He was esteemed one of the first ornaments of the accomplished society of the capital of France. He died in 1789, in the office of viceroy of Sicily.

CARACCIOLI, Francisco, brother of the duke of Roccaromana, was distinguished as Neapolitan admiral, in 1793, at Toulon; but, being treated by his court with contempt, he entered the service of the Parthenopean republic, and repelled, with a few vessels, an attempt of the SicilianEnglish fleet to effect a landing. When Ruffo took Naples, in 1799, Caraccioli was arrested, contrary to the terms of the capitulation, was condemned to death by the junta (see Speziale), was hung at the mast of his frigate, and thrown into the sea. His death is a blot on the fame of Nelson.

CARACTACUS; a king of the ancient British people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales. He defended his country seven years against the Romans, but was, at last, defeated, and led in triumph to the emperor Claudius, then at York, where his noble behavior and pathetic_speech obtained him liberty, A. D. 52. Buchanan, Monipenny, and the other ancient Scottish historians, make this heroic prince one of the Scotch monarchs.

CARAFA, OF CARAFFA, Michael; one of the most popular Italian composers now living. He was born at Naples, 1787, studied under Fenaroli, at the conservatoire of Naples, and enjoyed the advantages of an acquaintance with Cherubini during his residence at Paris. He has composed some agreeable and characteristic melodies, and is an imitator of Rossini. Among his operas, the opera seria “Gabriele de Vergy" has gained the most applause. Carafa is also an excellent composer of music for songs.

CARAITES, or CAREANS, among the Jews; those who reject the tradition of the Talmud, and hold merely to the letter of Scripture, in opposition to the Rabbinists. (See Rabbi.)

CARAMANIA; an interior province of Asiatic Turkey, east of Natolia, comprising about 35,000 square miles. It is intersected by the Kisil Jermak, which, af

ter a course of about 350 miles, flows north into the Black sea. Caramania comprehends the ancient Pamphylia, and a great part of Cilicia, Pisidia and Cappadocia Minor. Bajazet united it to the Ottoman empire in 1488. The inhabitants carry on some trade with camels' hair, goats' wool and opium. The population probably does not exceed from 150 to 200,000. Cogni, or Konich (lat. 38° 10' N., lon. 32° 25′ E., 308 miles east of Smyrna, and 150 north of the shore of the Mediterranean) is the capital. There is also a town of this province called Caramania. CARASCOSA, Michele, baron. This general, distinguished in the latest history of Naples, rose to eminence during the period of the Parthenopean republic, and, after 1806, under Joseph Bonaparte, in Spain. After his return, Joachim (Murat) raised him successively through various degrees of military command. In 1814, he commanded a body of troops which assisted the Austrians against the French, and, in 1815, a division of Neapolitan troops against the Austrians, and signed, with the other Neapolitan generals, the capitulation of Casalanza. In 1820, when minister of war, he endeavored, unsuccessfully, to suppress the insurrection which broke out in the army. In later times, he took part in the revolution, after the king had shown himself apparently favorable to constitutional principles. At the time of the invasion of the Austrians, he received an important command, and was appointed to guard the road from Terracina to Naples. (See Abruzzo, Neapolitan Revolution, and Pepe.) At Sulmona, his army was surrounded, and dispersed. He fled to Barcelona, and lives, at present, in England, where he has written his Mémoirs hist., polit. et milit., sur la Révolut. du Roy. de Naples en 1820 (London, 1823), which are valuable in a historical and military respect.

CARAVAGGIO, Michael Angelo Amerighi, or Morigi, called Michael Angelo da Caravaggio, a celebrated painter, born at Caravaggio, in the Milanese, in 1569, was, at first, a journeyman mason, but soon applied himself to the study of painting, studied in Milan and Venice, and afterwards went to Rome, where he distinguished himself. He may be considered as the inventor of a manner which has had a crowd of imitators. His characteristic traits are vigor and truth of chiaro-oscuro combined with excellent coloring. He was fond of introducing broad and deep masses of shade, whereby a great effect is given to the light, To

aid him in producing this effect, the room in which he worked was illuminated by a skylight, and the walls were painted black. He excelled in the painting of naked figures. His faults are obvious. Narrow and servile imitation of nature was his highest aim. Annibal Caracci and Domenichino were, perhaps, less dis tinguished than Caravaggio during their lives, but, after their death, were ranked higher, because, without neglecting coloring and the study of nature, they aimed at correctness of design and dignity of conception. His violent character involved him in many difficulties. He died as early as 1609. The painters who have imitated him most are Manfredi, Valentin, and Ribeira, called Espagnolet.

CARAVAGGIO. (See Caldara.)

CARAVAN, or KARAVAN; a Persian word, used to denote large companies which travel together in the Levant and in Africa, for the sake of security from robbers, having in view, principally, trade or pilgrimages. Such a company often has more than 1000 camels to carry their baggage and their goods. These walk in single file, so that the line is often a mile long. On account of the excessive heat, they travel, mostly, early in the morning. As every Mohammedan is obliged to visit the tomb of Mohammed once, at least, during his life, caravans of pilgrims go to Mecca, every year, from various places of meeting. The leader of such a caravan to Mecca, who carries with him some cannon for protection, is called Emir Adge. Trading caravans choose one of their own number for a leader, whom they call Caravan-Baschi. Much information on the subject of caravans is to be found in the travels of Niebuhr, who made many journeys with them, and describes them, as it is well known, minutely and faithfully. (For an account of some of the most important routes pursued by the caravans in Africa, see the article Africa, p. 90, vol. i.)

CARAVAN TEA. (See Tea.)

CARAVANSARIES, in the East; a sort of inn, situated in countries where there are no cities or villages for a considerable extent, to furnish travellers with a shelter. Some of them are built with much splendor, though they are generally unfurnished, and the traveller is obliged to bring with him his bed and carpet. In many, the hospitality is gratuitous. It is common for a pious Mohammedan to estab lish, during his life, or by will, one or several of such caravansaries. This kind of benevolence is considered peculiarly

agreeable to the Deity, and promotive of the eternal happiness of the founder. Sometimes persons are kept in these establishments to show the way to the caravans for some distance. (See Khan.) CARAWAY SEEDS (fructus carvi) are a stimulant and excitant, the fruit of a biennial plant (carum carvi, Linnæus), a native of Europe, growing particularly in the south of France.

CARBON. Charcoal, as we are familiar with it in common life, contains hydrogen and saline and metallic substances. Accordingly, it became necessary to introduce a peculiar term for its pure base, and the one adopted by chemists was carbon. This element, besides forming the inflammable matter of charcoal, exists largely in animal substances, and is extensively distributed in the mineral kingdom. The only body in which carbon has been found to exist in a state of absolute purity, is the diamond. This precious stone has always been esteemed as the most valuable of the gems-a superiority which it owes to its hardness, lustre and high refractive power. Diamonds are brought from India and from Brazil. Those of India, which have been the longest known, are principally found in the kingdoms of Golconda and of Visiapour. Those of Brazil, discovered at the commencement of the 17th century, belong to the district of Serro-do-Frio. The situations in which they occur are such as to favor the idea of their recent formation; since they exist disseminated through a loose, ferruginous sandstone, or quite detached in a sandy soil; and, in both cases, are situated at no great depth below the surface. In Brazil, the conglomerate in which they exist is called cascalho; from which they are extracted by washing, in the same manner as gold. The diamond uniformly occurs crystallized, and presents a great variety of forms; all of which yield readily to mechanical division parallel to all the planes of the regular octohedron, which, therefore, is the form of the primary crystal, and under which figure it is sometimes found in nature. The faces of its crystals are very frequently curved, so as to communicate to them a rounded appearance. They are commonly limpid; and are either colorless, or of a yellowish, bluish, yellowish-brown, black-brown, Prussian blue or rose-red color. Specific gravity, 3.5. Its hardness is extreme; so that it can be worn down only by rubbing one diamond against another, and is polished only by the finer diamond powder.

-The weight, and, consequently, the value of diamonds, are estimated in carats, one of which is equal to four grains; and the price of one diamond, compared with that of another of equal color, transparency and purity, is as the squares of the respective weights. The average price of rough diamonds, that are worth working, is about £2 for the first carat. The value of a cut diamond is equal to that of a rough diamond of double weight, exclusive of the price of workmanship; and the whole cost of a wrought diamond of 1 carat may be about $36, or £ 8 2 carats 3 do. 4 do. is 100 do. is 1002 X

22 × £8 =

32

is is

8

72

42 X

8

128

=

8= 80,000

This rule, however, is not extended to diamonds of more than 20 carats. The larger ones are disposed of at prices inferior to their value by that computation. The snow-white diamond is most prized by the jeweller. When transparent, and free from cracks, it is said to be of the first water.-The following are some of the most extraordinary diamonds known: -one in the possession of the rajah of Mattan, in the island of Borneo, where it was found about a century ago: it is shaped like an egg, and is of the finest water: its weight is 367 carats, or 2 oz. 169 grs. Troy. Another is the celebrated Pitt diamond, now among the crown jewels of France, weighing 136 carats; another in the sceptre of the emperor of Russia, of the size of a pigeon's egg; and another in the possession of the Great Mogul, which is said to weigh 280, and which, in a rough state, weighed 793 carats.-From the fact that transparent inflammable bodies refract light in a ratio greater than their densities, sir Isaac Newton conjectured that the diamond might consist of an unctuous matter coagulated. The Florentine academicians had rendered its combustibility probable, by exposing it to the solar rays of a pow erful burning-glass, and observing that it gradually disappeared, or was consumed, Subsequent experiments settled the question, by proving, that the diamond lost none of its weight when calcined out of contact with the air; but, on the contrary, that it was dissipated when heated in contact with this fluid. It still remained, however, to be discovered, what was the true nature of the diamond. This was accomplished by Lavoisier, who enclosed diamonds in jars filled with atmospheric air or oxygen gas, and, after having