ed.

Cato, however, prevailed, and C. was for a time kept out of the pretorship. But he was soon after chosen pontifex maximus, and was about to go as governor to Farther Spain. His creditors refusing to let him depart, Crassus became his bondsman for the enormous sum of 830 talents. It was on his journey to Spain, that he expressed, on seeing a miserable village, the well-known sentiment, that "he would rather be first there, than second at Rome." In Spain, he made several conquests, and returned to Rome with money enough to pay off his debts. In order to gain the consulship, he now found it expedient to bring about a reconciliation between Pompey and Crassus, whose enmity had divided Rome into two parties. He succeeded in his design, and all three agreed to divide the sovereign power between them. This was the first triumvirate in Roman history (B. C. 60.) C. then became consul with M. Calpurnius Bibulus, confirmed the measures of Pompey, and procured the passage of a law, in opposition to the senate and his colleague, to distribute certain lands among the poor citizens. This brought him into the highest favor with the people. With Pompey he form ed a still more intimate connexion by giving him his daughter Julia in marriage, and gained the favor of the equestrian order by remitting a third part of their taxes. In vain did the heads of the patriotic party, Cicero and Cato, raise their voices against the triumvirate: they only drew upon themselves their vengeance. When the year of his consulship had expired, C. obtained the government of Gaul for five years, with the command of four legions. After his marriage with the accomplished Calpurnia, the daughter of one of the new consuls, Calpurnius Piso, he repaired to Gaul, compelled the Helvetians, who had invaded that province, to retreat to their native country, subdued Ariovistus, who, at the head of a German tribe, intended to settle in the country of the Edui, and conquered the Belgians. In nine years, he reduced all Gaul, crossed the Rhine twice (B. C. 55 and 53), and twice passed over to Britain, defeated the gallant natives of this island in several battles, and compelled them to give him hostages. The senate had continued his government in Gaul for another period of five years, while Pompey was to have the command of Spain, and Crassus that of Syria, Egypt and Macedonia for five years also. But the death of Crassus, in

his campaign against the Parthians, dissolved the triumvirate; and the death of Julia, which took place about the same time, cooled the friendship between C. and Pompey. Meanwhile the power and authority of Pompey were constantly increasing. C., too, strove to strengthen and enlarge his own party in the capital by enormous bribes. He made Gaul a Roman province, and governed the conquered lands with policy and kindness. Pompey, on the other hand, promoted C.'s enemies to the consulship, and persuaded the senate to pass a decree, by which C. was to leave his army, and resign his government of the province. He declared himself ready to obey, if Pompey would do the same. Hereupon the senate ordered that C. should resign his offices and command within a certain time, or be proclaimed an enemy to the state, and appointed Pompey general of the army of the republic. Upon this, C. urged his soldiers to defend the honor of their leader, passed the Rubicon (49 B. C.), and made himself master of Italy without striking a blow, as Pompey, destitute of troops to meet him, had left the city with the consuls, senators and magistrates. C. then levied an army with the treasures of the state, and hastened into Spain, which he reduced to submission without coming to a pitched battle with Pompey's generals. He next conquered Marseilles, and returned to Rome, where he was appointed dictator by the pretor, M. Æmilius Lepidus. At the same time, he was chosen consul for the following year by the people. In the meanwhile, Pompey had collected an army in the east, and his rival hastened to Epirus with five legions by land. But when the vessels which were intended to transport the rest of his troops had been captured by Pompey's fleet, C. proposed an accommodation, which, however, was refused. Meanwhile C. received the expected reenforcements, and challenged his antagonist to battle. Pompey declined coming to an engagement, but, at last, being surrounded in his camp, was forced to take a decisive step, in order to break through the enemy's line. This measure was successful, and C. retreated to Pharsalia, where, in a bloody but decisive engagement (48 B. C.), he gained the victory. Pompey fled to Asia, and then to Egypt, to raise a new army. As his party was only weakened, but not destroyed, C. hastened after him, passed over the Hellespont, where Cassius surrendered to him with his fleet, and then went to Egypt. Here he received

intelligence of the murder of Pompey. He shed tears at the tragical end of his rival, gave his body an honorable burial, and loaded his followers with favors, by which many of them were won to embrace his cause. Being detained by contrary winds, he made use of the time to compose the differences between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra (q. v.). In Rome, the senate and the people strove eagerly to gain the favor of the victor. They appointed him consul for five years, dictator for a year, and tribune of the people for life. Pharnaces, king of Pontus, a son of Mithridates the Great, having attempted to recover the territories of his father in Asia, C. marched against him, pardoned king Dejotarus, an adherent of Pompey, on his way, and finished the war so speedily, that he announced his success to his friends in the famous words Veni, vidi, vici. Returning to Rome, he granted an amnesty to all the followers of Pompey, and gained, by his clemency, the universal love of the people. When his dictatorship had expired, he caused himself to be chosen consul again, and, without changing the ancient forms of government, ruled with almost unlimited power. In Africa, however, the friends of the republic had gathered under the standard of Cato and other generals. C. passed over with an army, and fought several battles with various success, till the victory at Thapsus over Scipio Metellus decided the contest in his favor. Cato, who was in Utica, stabbed himself, and the city surrendered to the conqueror. C. then made Mauritania and Numidia Roman provinces, and gave orders for the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth, which was accomplished in a year. In Rome, he was received with the most striking marks of honor. The term of his dictatorship was prolonged to 10 years, the of fice of censor conferred on him alone; his person was declared inviolable, and his statue placed by that of Jupiter in the capitol. In a speech to the people on this occasion, he declared his resolution to use his power for the good of the state; and put an end to the apprehensions, which some still entertained, by the pardon of Marcellus, one of his most open and bitter enemies. He soon after cele brated the four triumphs which had been decreed him over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba, all in one month, and among the most magnificent ever witnessed in Rome. He now passed many useful laws, and invited the learned men of foreign countries to Rome. Amongst

other things, he undertook the reformation of the calendar (q. v.). During these peaceful occupations, the sons of Pompey had collected new forces in Spain, so that C. took the field in person against them. Corduba was captured after a most obstinate resistance; and, soon after, the parties came to a general engagement at Munda. A fortunate accident decided the battle in favor of C., after victory had been for a whole day doubtful. In seven months, Spain was conquered, and C. entered Rome in triumph. He was now made perpetual dictator, and received the title of imperator, with full powers of sovereignty. He continued, meanwhile, to conciliate his enemies by clemency, and to heap honors upon his friends. The number of senators he increased from 300 to 900. But this degradation of the senate offended the Romans, and their displeasure was increased by the arrogance with which he conducted towards that order. On one occasion, as he was sitting in the rostrum, in his chair of gold, Mark Antony offered him a royal diadem. He refused it, however, and his refusal drew shouts of applause from the people. The next morning, his statues were decked with diadems. The tribunes of the people, who had them taken off, and imprisoned the persons who had done the act, were deposed from their office by C. This was the occasion of an animosity, which ended in a conspiracy, of which Caius Cassius was the prime mover. C., having no suspicion of the danger which threatened him, was forming new projects. He resolved to subdue the Parthians, and then to conquer all Scythia, from the Caucasus to Germany and Gaul. C.'s friends gave out, that, according to the Sibylline books, the Parthians could be conquered only by a king, and, therefore, proposed that C. should retain the title of dictator with regard to Italy, but should be saluted with that of king in all the conquered countries. For this purpose, a meeting of the senate was appointed for the 15th of March; and this was the day fixed on by the conspirators for the execution of the plot. A soothsayer warned C. of his danger; and his wife, disturbed by a frightful dream, conjured him not to go to the senate-house. His doubts, however, were overcome by Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators, and he proceeded to the capitol. On his way thither, a billet was handed him, giving him information of the conspiracy; but, in the crowd, he put it by without reading it. The conspirators had concerted, that Metellus

Cimber should entreat a pardon for his brother, and, if C. should refuse, he was to tear the mantle from his shoulders, which was to be the signal for their rushing upon him with their daggers. All was done as they had planned. Casca's dagger first pierced him in the neck. Scarcely had C. turned, and uttered the words "Accursed Casca, what doest thou?" when the conspirators rushed upon him from all sides. He defended himself, however, undauntedly. But, when he descried Brutus among the conspirators, he exclaimed, " And thou, too, my son ?" covered his face with his mantle, and fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot of Pompey's statue. Thus died this remarkable man, the best who ever aspired to sovereignty in Rome, the victor in 500 battles, and the conqueror of a thousand cities, B. C. 44, 15th of March, in the 56th year of his age.-Of C.'s writings, we have his history of his wars with the Gauls and with Pompey, written in a simple, noble style. The most esteemed editions are those of Clarke (London, 1712, fol.), Grævius (Leyden, 1713, 2 vols.), and Oudendorp (Leyden, 1737, 2 vols. 4to.) One of the best modern small editions is that of Oberlin (Leipsic, 1805). CESAREA; the ancient name of many cities.-1. C. Philippi, or Paneas, built by Philip, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod the Great.-2. C. Stratonis, on the shores of the Mediterranean, about 75 miles north-west from Jerusalem. Herod the Great enlarged it, and it became the metropolis of Palestine, and the seat of the Roman proconsul. (Joseph. Arch. 15, 9, 6.) It is the place where Herod Agrippa was smitten by the angel (Acts xii. 20 23), where Cornelius the centurion resided (x.), and St. Paul was imprisoned two years (xxiii.-xxv). It is now, according to Clarke, in utter desolation.3. The capital of Cappadocia, and now called Kaisarich. It was once supposed to contain 400,000 inhabitants. Lucas (2d Voyage, xviii.) says that all the mountains in the environs are perforated with grottoes, which served as summer residences, and that there are 200,000 little pyramids in the vicinity. It has now 25,000 inhabitants, and considerable trade in cotton.-There were many other towns of this name.

CESAREAN OPERATION. (See Midwifery.)

wrists, intended for defence. It was afterwards enlarged, so as to reach to the elbow, and loaded with metal, to increase the weight of the blow. The combat with the cæstus was not more dangerous than a common English boxing-match. Theocritus (Idyll. 22) has described one of these combats.

CESURA, in Latin verse; the separation of the last syllable of any word from those which preceded it, and the carrying it forward into another foot. It always renders the syllable on which it falls long, and is accompanied by a slight pause, hence called the casural pause, as in the following line:

Ille latus niveum molli fultus hyacintho.

In English poetry, it is equivalent to pause. (See Versification.)

CAF; a mountain, which, if we believe the Mohammedans, environs the whole earth, which is thus set within it like a finger in a ring. Its foundation is the stone Sakhral, one grain of which enables its possessor to work miracles. The agitation of this stone, which is an emerald, whose reflection gives the sky its tints, is the cause of earthquakes. The Dives, or giants, and the Peri, or fairies, dwell in it. CAFE. (See Coffee-Houses.)

On

CAFFA; one of the principal ports of the Crimea, formerly a large and rich city, now much reduced. On the south stood the Genoese town, of which ruined walls and massive magazines remain. some neighboring heights was the Armenian town, and near this the Tartar city, its magnificent baths and mosques falling into decay. It was called, by the Tartars, Little Constantinople; but, from the time of its capture by the Turks, in 1475, it began to decline. When Clarke visited it, in 1800, its population was diminished to 50 families. In 1783, it was ceded to Russia, and called Feodosia, from its ancient name, Theodosia.

CAFFA, strait of, anciently the Cimmerian Bosphorus, discharges the turbid wa ters of the sea of Azoph (Palus Mæotis) into the Black sea. It is about 15 leagues in length and 3 in breadth.

CAFFARELLI. (See Majorano.)

CAFFARELLI DU FALGA. Among five brothers of this name, all of whom have distinguished themselves in different departments of politics and literature, the best known are,-1. Louis Marie Joseph

cian and Roman pugilists. The original Greek cæstus was merely a raw hide, fastened to the hand, and reaching to the

in 1799, before St. Jean d'Acre, while general of division. His works, which gained him a place in the national insti

tute, relate to mathematics, the necessity of better public instruction, and various political and philosophical subjects. His whole life was devoted to learning, and to the welfare of mankind. He adopted the principles of the revolution, and served as a captain in the army of the Rhine; but, when the national convention made known to the armies the condemnation of Louis XVI, in 1793, he declared his disapprobation of it, and was, on that account, deprived of his office, and imprisoned 14 months. He was afterwards set at liberty, employed in the department of war, and finally returned to the army of the Rhine. The loss of a leg did not prevent him from engaging in the expedition to Egypt, as chief of the corps of engineers.-2. His brother Augustus, lieutenant-general, born in 1766, served first in the Sardinian troops, and afterwards in almost all the campaigns of the revolutionary war, under the standard of France. In 1804, Napoleon sent him to Rome to induce the holy father to go to France, to anoint him at his coronation. He was then made governor of the Tuileries, received a command in the army, and was, from 1806 to 1810, minister of war in the kingdom of Italy, and afterwards in active service in the war in Spain. Napoleon gave him the command of the first military division during the "hundred days." CAFFÉ, Daniel; a painter in crayons; born at Kustrin, 1750. After having passed his childhood and youth in want, he left a comfortable office from his love to painting, and was received, at the age of 32 years, as a pupil of the academy of painting in Dresden. Here he studied, chiefly, the pictures of Mengs, and soon acquired a great reputation by his portraits. He also established a manufactory of crayons. He copied many pictures in the galleries of Dresden, with a vigor and warmth uncommon in a painter in crayons. He died in 1815.

CAFFILA; a company of merchants or travellers who join together for security, in some eastern countries. It differs from the caravan by being in the employ of some sovereign or company, while the former is composed of merchants trading each on his own account.

CAFFRARIA; a name adopted, by the Portuguese, from the Arabs, who called all the African continent, southward from Sofala (their most southerly settlement), the land of Cafirs (infidels). It was first applied to the whole width of the continent, from cape Corrientes on the east to cape Negro on the west. As the names

of particular states and people became known, the extent of C. diminished; and the term is now applied only to the territory on the north-eastern borders of the Cape Colony. C. is but imperfectly known. (See Caffres.)

CAFFRES. In the south-eastern part of Africa, there is a race distinguished from the Negroes by a larger facial angle (the head being formed like that of Europeans), a high nose, hair frizzled, but less woolly than that of the Negroes, and a brown or iron-gray complexion, differing from the shining black of that race. They have many Arab words in their dialects, and the custom of circumcision prevails among them. These people were called, by the Portuguese, Caffres, mistaking the Mohammedan term Cafir (heretics) for a national appellation. It is now retained, by geographical writers, to denote the savage tribes, whose physical characteristics have already been described, extending from Quiloa southward, and the Cape Colony eastward. The history, origin and actual extent of this race is unknown, and is reserved to instruct or confound future explorers in these unknown regions. In a more limited sense, this name has been given to the tribe whose true name is Koussas, living on the confines of the Cape Colony. They are a handsome, vigorous race, of simple habits, their principal food being milk in the form of curd. They use no salt: water is their only drink. They are all passionately fond of tobacco. Their dress is made of the skins of sheep. Ivory rings, worn on the left arm, are their chief ornaments. The women have their backs, arms and breasts furrowed by tearing up the skin with a sharp instrument. Both sexes paint the whole body red. Their dwellings are low, circular cabins, constructed by the women. Plurality of wives is allowed, but it is rare that they have more than two. Cattle are of the first importance, and the chief object of affection to a Caffre. They obey and follow their master like dogs. The ground is cultivated by the women. the age of 12, the boys are appointed to the care of cattle, and exercised publicly in the use of the javelin and the club. The girls, under the inspection of the chiefs' wives, are taught to perform the work of the hut and the garden. The Caffres are of a peaceful disposition, but display great activity and skill in the use of arms, when necessary. Their weapons are the hassagay, the shield and the club. Previous to commencing hostili

At

ties, they send heralds to the enemy. They are fond of the chase, pursuing the lion and the elephant. Each horde has a hereditary and absolute chief. The cupidity of the English colonists has found pretences for depriving them of their finest territory (1821), now called Albany; and this lately kind and happy people seem destined to extinction, or to a miserable and degraded condition. (See Lichtenstein's Travels in Southern Africa.) CAFTAN; the well-known national dress of the Turks, in the form of a night-gown, and generally white, with pale-yellow flowers. It is made of woollen or silk, and sometimes lined with costly fur. Such caftans are presented as gifts, by the Turkish court, to the Christian ambassadors, or to other persons on whom a particular honor is to be conferred. And ambassadors, if they are not expressly permitted to appear in the dress of their nation, are compelled to wear a caftan at the audiences that are given them.

CAGLIA, cape. (See Matapan, cape.) CAGLIARI, the capital of the island of Sardinia, is situated on a hill near the sea. It consists of four parts,-1. the castle, on the top of the hill; 2. the Marina; 3. Estempache; 4. the Villa Nuova. It is strongly fortified, and is the residence of the viceroy, of an archbishop, and the seat of a university with 300 students, which was revived and remodelled in 1765. It contains a royal society for the promotion of agriculture, established in 1805, a museum of natural history, and one of antiquities. Population, 28,000. It has some manufactures. C. is the emporium of all the Sardinian trade. Here are the dock-yards and the quarantineground. Its spacious and safe harbor is defended by several forts.

CAGLIARI, Paul; known under the name of Paul Veronese; a painter of Verona, born, 1532. His father, who was a sculptor, wished to educate his son for the same profession; but the young man betrayed a greater inclination for painting, and was, therefore, placed under the care of his uncle, Antonio Badile, a painter. Under this able instructer, Paul made considerable progress; but, as the school of Verona already possessed distinguished artists, such as Forbicini, Giolsino, Ligozzi, Brusasorci and Farinato, he obtained, at first, but little celebrity. He went to Mantua and Vicenza, and afterwards to Venice. Here he imitated Titian and Tintoretto, but, at the same time, appeared desirous of surpassing them by a more studied elegance, and a richer va

riety of ornament. It soon became evident, from his works, that he had studied the casts of ancient statues, and the etchings of Parmesan and Albert Dürer. In his first great works, which are in the church of St. Sebastian, in Venice, his pencil is yet timid. The History of Esther, in fresco, which he afterwards painted in this church, excited general admiration; and the execution of important works was intrusted to him, among which are many that adorn the library of St. Mark's. He afterwards accompanied the Venetian ambassador Grimani to Rome, where he saw, with enthusiasm, the beautiful models of Raphael and Michael Angelo, and painted, after his return, his fine Apotheosis of Venice. His numerous banquetting pieces are also excellent. Six, at least, of these are found at Venice, in the refectories of the monasteries, among the best of which are the Marriage at Cana, comprising 120 figures, many of which are portraits, and the Feast of Christ with Simon. In the former piece, the extravagant display of Asiatic pomp, and the confusion of different persons and dresses, have been justly censured. In the latter, the air of pride in the aspect of Christ, instead of a simple expression of dignity, the placing of the principal personage in a corner of the picture, and the running into each other of the white table-cloth and the architecture of the background, have been considered blemishes. In his Pilgrims of Emmaus, Paul violated all the unities of time, place and action. But, with all these faults, he displays splendid talents and great fruitfulness of conception. His portraits are spirited and noble, and his coloring splendid. He died in 1588. His scholars were, Charles and Gabriel, his sons, and Benedetto, his brother, besides Michael Parrasio, Naudi, Maffei Verona, Francesco Montemezzano.

CAGLIOSTRO, Count of (real name Giuseppe Balsamo), was born in 1743, at Palerino. His father died when he was young, and he was educated by his maternal relations. He entered the order of the Brothers of Mercy, where he found an opportunity to cultivate his talents for medical science, by which he afterwards distinguished himself. But he showed, at the same time, a great love of dissipation, and was, at last, compelled to separate from the order. He returned to Palermo, where, among other tricks, he deceived some credulous persons by his pretended skill in magic and the finding of hidden treasures. He also showed