fication of the (then incomplete) Portuguese constitution, and, April 22, appointed his son don Pedro prince-regent of B. He now embarked for Portugal, April 26. But, as the Portuguese cortes was not willing to grant the entire equality of civil and political relations demanded by the Brazilians, and, without waiting for the arrival of the Brazilian deputation, had framed the articles of the constitution which related to B., and subsequently rejected the additional articles proposed by the Brazilian deputies, and, finally, had expressly declared, that B. was to be divided into governments, and ruled by the ninistry of state at Lisbon, and the princeregent was to be recalled to Portugal, such violent convulsions were excited in Rio Janeiro, and various parts of B., Dec., 1821, that it was explicitly declared to the prince-regent, that his departure would be the signal for establishing an independent republic. The prince, therefore, resolved to remain in B., and gave a public explanation of his reasons, Jan. 9th, 1822, to his father, to the cortes in Portugal, and to the people of B. The Portuguese troops were removed from B. The princeregent assumed, May 13th, 1822, the title of perpetual defender of B., and, in June, convened a national assembly, composed of 100 deputies, to frame a separate constitution for the country. The cortes in Lisbon, on the other hand, declared this constitution void, Sept. 19th, 1822, and demanded the return of the prince-regent to Europe, on pain of forfeiting his right to the throne. Meanwhile, the national assembly of B. had declared the separation of that country from Portugal, Aug. 1, 1822, and, Oct. 12, appointed don Pedro the constitutional emperor of B. The new emperor retained, at the same time, the title of perpetual defender of B. -Soon after the establishment of the empire, began the struggle with the republican party. In this party were many free-masons. Don Pedro, who had proclaimed himself, shortly before, grand master of all the free-masons in B., ordered that all the lodges should be closed, and the congress, which he had promised to assemble for the purpose of framing a constitution, was not convened. At that time, the two brothers Andrade, Jose Bonifacio, minister of foreign affairs and of the interior, and Martin F. Ribeiro, minister of finances, especially the former, possessed the entire confidence of the emperor. The most difficult matter was to effect his recognition in Europe; for don Pedro had acquired the new dignity

in consequence of the principle of the sovereignty of the people in a colony separated from the mother country; and it was also made a question, whether he should not renounce his claims to the crown of Portugal. His father, indeed, when he left B., April 26, 1821, had given him full powers to do all that might be necessary to preserve this country to the house of Braganza. The mission, nevertheless, of major Schäffer to Vienna, could not procure the acknowledgment of the new emperor by his father-in-law, the emperor of Austria. The Brazilian troops, in the meantime, conquered Monte Video, which still had a Portuguese garrison, in Dec., 1823, after which the Banda Oriental was united with B., under the name of Cisplatino, as also Bahia, which was defended by a Portuguese garrison, under general Madeira. Lord Cochrane, the Brazilian admiral, blockaded the harbor from March 26, 1823. Madeira, compelled to surrender by famine, sailed, during the negotiation, in the night of July 2, to Europe, and the Brazilian troops entered the place. At home, don Pedro had two parties to contend with-the ancient Portuguese, which was the weaker, and the republican, the stronger. The latter was especially powerful in Pernambuco. The brothers Andrade sought to gain both parties by the proposal of a free constitution, formed after the model of the English; but the obstacles of all kinds, and the violent opposition with which their administration was harassed, compelled them to resort to arbitrary measures and arrests. They treated the malcontents as Carbonari, and thereby excited the suspicion, that the emperor aspired to absolute authority. They finally convoked the cortes of B., the session of which was opened by the emperor, May 3, 1823. Of the 20 members, who constituted the opposition, out of the 60 (instead of 160) present, Aranjo Lima was the most eloquent. The ministers succeeded in causing secret societies to be prohibited, by which means they gained a pretence for imprisoning many, whose sentiments were republican. This augmented the public dissatisfaction, and, when the emperor, having been severely injured by a fall from a horse, did not appear in public for a month, the enemies of the ministers became more bold in their outcries, and even sent threatening representations to the emperor. The imprisoned were acquitted by the supreme court of justice, and the emperor found himself compelled to dismiss the two Andrade, July 16,

1823. Don Joaq. de Carneiro Campos (formerly professor of mathematics at the college of Lisbon) received the department of foreign affairs, and don Man. Jacint. Figueroa da Gama that of the finances both adherents to the political principles of 1791.-Meanwhile, the royal power had been restored in Lisbon in May, 1823; but the Brazilians demanded the more loudly a free constitution and a separation from Portugal. The emperor, therefore, refused to receive the envoy of the king his father, the count de Rio Mayor, Sept. 6, 1823, because he could not give assurance of the acknowledgment of the independence of B. At the same time, the congress authorized a loan of £2,500,000 in London, which has subsequently been increased about £700,000. (75 per cent. only was paid in specie, at 6 per cent. interest!) The constitution of Aug. 10, 1823, which the national assembly had accepted with some alterations, was finally laid before the emperor, but, in consequence of a revolution which suddenly ensued, not accepted, because it resembled the Spanish and Portuguese constitutions, and restricted too much the authority of the sovereign. Since the fall of the Andrade, the republican party had gained strength, and attacked, in their journals, with particular violence, the Portuguese in the Brazilian service, and demanded their expulsion. Two officers, in retaliation, did some injury, Nov. 8, to an apothecary at Rio, who laid his complaints before the congress. The two ex-ministers Andrade, and their third brother, don Antonio Carlos, likewise a deputy, demanded that congress should investigate the matter; others desired that it should be referred to the courts of justice. This gave rise to a violent tumult on the 10th; the people took part in it; the dismissal of the ministers, and the departure of all the Portuguese, were loudly required. The ministers gave in their resignation, and the emperor collected the troops at his palace San Christovao, four leagues from the city. The congress hereupon declared itself permanent. Nov. 12, it was informed, by a message from the emperor, that all the officers regarded themselves as injured by two journals, of one of which the three Andrade were editors, and patrons of the other; and they were accused, in general, of being at the head of a rebellious party. The minister of the interior declared, at the same time, that the troops insisted on the removal of the two An

drade from the assembly. Immediately after, the troops entered the city, surrounded the hall of the convention, and an officer delivered an imperial decree, ordering the dissolution of the assembly. The president recorded it on the journals, declared the session terminated, and the deputies separated, Nov. 12, 1823. But while departing, and subsequently, many were arrested; among them the three Andrade, who were eventually transported. In a decree of the same day, the emperor termed the assembly perjured, but, on the following day, limited this expression to the faction of the Andrade. -The provinces, also, were the theatre of many turbulent scenes. In Pernambuco, the violent dissolution of the congress gave rise to much dissatisfaction, and it was difficult to appease the hatred of the Brazilians against the Portuguese. A second national assembly was finally convened at the end of Nov., 1823, and the emperor caused a constitution, drawn up by his council of state, to be laid before the cabildo (the municipality) of the capital, Dec. 11, 1823, which collected the votes of the citizens respecting it in writing. As all assented to this constitution, the oath was administered Jan. 9 1824. The same course was pursued in the provinces: but here many citizens voted against the constitution; among others, the president, Man. de Carvalho Paes d'Andrade of Pernambuco. March 25, 1824, the oath to observe the constitution was also taken by the emperor and empress. In its fundamental principles, this constitution coincided with those previously projected. The four branches of civil authority-the legislative, the mediative, the executive and the judicial

are administered by the representatives of the people. The government is monarchical, hereditary, constitutional and representative. The representation of the Brazilian nation consists of the emperor and the general assembly, a body composed of two chambers-that of the depoties, chosen for four years, and that of the senators, chosen by the emperor from the election-lists. With the former rests the power of originating bills for the imposi tion of taxes and the levying of soldiers. as well as of proposing a change of dyn asty. The latter retain their dignity for life. The sessions of these chambers are public. The majority of votes decides. The senate has jurisdiction of the misdemeanors of the members of the royal family, of the ministers, deputies and council of state. The two chambers pos

sess, in general, great privileges. The emperor has the executive and mediatorial authorities; but his veto is not absolute. He cannot refuse his sanction to a bill equally approved by two legislative assemblies. The press is free, but libels are punished by law. All immunities, privileged corporations, &c. are abolished. The Roman Catholic is the established religion: to other denominations domestic worship is allowed, but without the power of having churches, &c. Notwithstanding this liberal constitution, the republican party gained the supremacy in Pernambuco. The president, Man. de Carvalho Paes d'Andrade, recalled by the emperor, attempted to unite the northern provinces into one republic, called the Union of the Equator. But, as soon as the emperor had no longer cause to fear an attack from Portugal, his forces invaded Pernambuco, in August, by land and sea, under the command of lord Cochrane and general Lima. Carvalho and Barros, with a great portion of the inhabitants, made an obstinate resistance; but, on the 17th of Sept., 1824, the city was taken by assault. Carvalho had fled to an English ship of war; the others into the interior of the country.-In the following year, the emperor sent general Brandt and the chev. de Carneiro to London, to negotiate there, with the Portuguese minister, the marquis de Villareal, respecting the independence of B. Similar negotiations afterwards took place in Lisbon, through the British envoy extraordinary, sir Charles Stuart, who finally concluded, at Rio Janeiro, with the Brazilian minister of foreign affairs, Luis Jose de Carvalho e Mello, a treaty between B. and Portugal, Aug. 29, 1825, on the following terms:-1. B. should be recognised as an independent empire, separate from Portugal and Algarvia. 2. The king of Portugal was to resign the sovereignty of B. in favor of his son and his legitimate posterity. 3. The king of Portugal should retain the title of emperor of B. for his own person merely. 4. The emperor don Pedro should promise to receive from no Portuguese colony proposals for a union with B. 5. The trade between the two nations should be restored, and all property confiscated should be returned, or compensation made for it. The king of Portugal ratified this treaty Nov. 15, 1825. The emperor of B. has since sent ambassadors to the courts of Lisbon, London, Paris and Vienna. Sir Charles Stuart, soon after, concluded at Rio, Oct. 18, 1825, a treaty

of amity and commerce, and another treaty, respecting the abolition of the slave-trade, delayed for four additional years, between B. and Great Britain. But neither was ratified by the king of Great Britain, because, among other things, they contained stipulations for the mutual surrender of political criminals (or those charged with high treason) and refugees. About this time, the government of the United Provinces of the Plata urged the restoration of the Banda Oriental, which B. had held in possession since 1816. The emperor, therefore, declared war against Buenos Ayres, Dec. 10, 1825, and caused the mouth of the La Plata to be blockaded by his vessels of war. But the people of the Cisplatino, with the natives of Monte Video, had already taken up arms, for the sake of a union with the United Provinces of the Plata. The insurgents took Maldonado. General Lecor (viscount de Laguna), however, maintained himself in Monte Video. On the other hand, the republic of the Plata formally received the Banda Oriental into its confederacy, and, at the close of the year 1825, B. possessed but two points in the Banda Oriental-Monte Video and the colony del San Sagramento. A question of much importance now arose, whether the emperor don Pedro should succeed his father, king John VI, in the kingdom of Portugal. The king died March 10, 1826, having appointed his daughter, the infanta Isabella Maria, provisional regent. According to the constitution of B., don Pedro could not leave the country without the consent of the general assembly. He therefore entered upon the government of Portugal, and gave this kingdom a representative constitution, but renounced the crown of Portugal in his own person by the act of abdication of May 2, 1826, and resigned his right to his daughter donna Maria da Gloria, princess of Beira, born in 1819, who was to marry her uncle don Miguel, born in 1802; meanwhile, the emperor confirmed the present regent of Portugal. (For a further account of Maria, Miguel, and the state of Portugal, see Portugal.) Soon after, May 8, he opened the second constitutional assembly of B. at Rio. He had previously, April 16, 1826, founded the new Brazilian order of Pedro I.The war with Buenos Ayres was continued in the Banda Oriental with little vigor, and with little prospect of advantage to either party, but with a ruinous charge upon the finances of both, A negotiation for peace was at length opened,

some hope of success in case of an assault. This is generally considered to be the case if it allows a passage to 14 men abreast. Frequently, however, a breach of much less extent, even of half that width, may be entered.

BREAD. In the earliest antiquity, we find the flour or meal of grain used as food. The inconvenience attending the use of the grain in its natural state, and, perhaps, the accidental observation, that, when bruised, and softened in water, it formed a paste, and, when dried again, a more compact, mealy substance, led, by degrees, to the artificial preparation of bread. Easy as it seems to us, it must have been a long time before it was completely successful. The grain was first bruised between stones, and, from the meal mixed with milk and water, a dry, tough and indigestible paste was made into balls. This is yet the chief food of the caravans in the deserts of Northern Africa The Carthaginians, also, ate no bread, and hence were called, in derision, by the Romans, pultiphagi (pottage-eaters). After many attempts, or, perhaps, accidentally, it was observed that, by bring ing the paste into a state of fermentation, its tenacity is almost entirely destroyed, and the mass becomes bread, porous, agreeable to the taste, digestible, and, consequently, healthy. The process pursued is the following:-Some old dough, called leaven, which, by a peculiar spirituous fermentation, has swelled up, become spongy, and acquired an acid and spirituous smell, is kneaded with the new dough, and produces, though in an inferior degree, a similar fermentation in the whole mass. The whole thus becomes spongy; a quantity of air or gas is developed, which, being prevented from escaping by the tenacity of the dough, heaves and swells it, and gives it a porous consistency. This is called the working of the dough. In this state, the dough is put into the heated oven, where the air contained in it, and the spirituous substance, are still more expanded by heat, and increase the porosity of the bread, making it materially different from the unbaked dough. The best and most wholesome bread is baked in some parts of France, and on the Rhine. In England, the flour is adulterated with too many foreign substances, in order to make the bread whiter. In some parts of Sweden, the bread is composed, in part, of the bark of trees, during the winter. In Westphaha, a kind of very coarse, black bread is made, of which the peasants bake one

large loaf for the whole week. This is divided for use with small saws. It is called pumpernickel, and is sometimes exported. In many parts of Germany, bread is made of grain nearly entire, or but just bruised, which is very coarse, and frequently forms part of the food of the horses. Bread is found wherever civilization has extended. It is made of wheat, rye, maize, barley, oats, spelt, &c. The want of bread has often occasioned public commotions, particularly in Paris and ancient Rome.

BREAD-FRUIT. The bread-fruit is a large, globular berry, of a pale-green color, about the size of a child's head, marked on the surface with irregular six-sided depressions, and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp, which, when ripe, becomes juicy and yellow. The tree that produces it (artocarpus incisa) grows wild in Otaheite and other islands of the South seas, is about 40 feet high, with large and spreading branches, and has large, brightgreen leaves, deeply divided into 7 or 9 spear-shaped lobes.-We are informed, in captain Cook's first voyage round the world, that the eatable part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core; and that it is as white as snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. When gathered, it is generally used immediately: if it be kept more than 24 hours, it becomes hard and choky. The inhabitants of the South sea islands prepare it as food by dividing the fruit into three or four parts, and roasting it in hot embers. Its taste is insipid, with a slight tartness, somewhat resembling that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem artichoke. Of this fruit, the Otaheitans make various messes by mixing it with water or the milk of the cocoa-nut, then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mingling with it ripe plantains, bananas, or a sour paste made from the bread-fruit itself, called mahie. It continues in season eight months, and so great is its utility in the island of Otaheite, "that," observes captain Cook, “if, in those parts where it is not spontaneously produced, a man plant but 10 trees in his whole lifetime, he will as completely fulfil his duty to his own and to future generations, as the native of our less temperate climate can do by ploughing in the cold of winter, and reaping in the summer's heat, as often as these seasons return; even if, after he has procured bread for his present household, he should convert the surplus into money, and lay it up for his children." Not only does