organization of this kind, and, at one time, had a mil lion members. Two objects are sought by most labor unions, the raising of wages and the lessening of the hours required for a day's work. If the companies refuse to grant one or both of these, or fail to agree to other demands of the unions, the unions may vote to "strike," that is, to stop work till some agreement can be made. In addition they may decide to "boycott" a firm; that is, refuse to trade with the firm or use its goods. Other national organizations of labor have been formed, and their influence on elections and law-making is very great (§ 506).

A RIOT

A scene in one of the big street railroad strikes

557. Railroad and Other Strikes (1877 and 1886). As a result of the panic which began in 1873, several of the leading railroads reduced the wages of their men. Suddenly thousands of these men refused to work and refused to permit others to take their places. Trains

ceased to run. Mobs took possession of railway stations and shops in several of the large cities, and in Pittsburgh they destroyed several million dollars' worth of property. A few persons were killed before the state and national troops restored order.

The year 1886 was noted for its labor troubles. The disturbances were most serious in St. Louis and Chicago. St. Louis was the center of a strike begun by the Knights of Labor against some of the railroads. As before, excitement and riot followed and troops were called out to aid in restoring order. Serious street railroad strikes also occurred.

558. The Chicago Anarchists (1886). The labor organizations of Chicago demanded that eight hours be counted as a day's labor. Many thousand laborers quit work. Public meetings were held and speeches made. At a meeting in Haymarket Square a speaker advised the strikers to use force. While he was being arrested by the police, an anarchist threw a dynamite bomb into their midst and killed or wounded several. The remaining policemen, however, dispersed the meeting.

Laboring men as well as the general public denounced the anarchists, because of their dangerous teaching that all law and government should be destroyed. Some of the leaders of the riot in Chicago were hanged and others imprisoned. In New York City also anarchist leaders were arrested for exciting a riot.

559. The Homestead Strike (1892). One of the signs of the coming panic of 1893 was the reduction of the wages of workmen in the iron mills at Homestead, Pennsylvania. The laborers declared a strike and the company hired private detectives to guard the non-union laborers who took the place of the strikers. The strik ers armed themselves and killed a number of the guard. The governor called out the militia and restored order.

560. The Coal Strikes of 1900 and 1902. Following the example of other workingmen, the coal miners formed a national organization called the United Mine Workers of America. In 1900 more than one hundred thousand miners, working in the hard-coal mines of Pennsylvania, struck for an increase in wages. The contest was short because public opinion compelled the miners and mine owners to stop the strike by a compromise.

The miners, however, were not entirely satisfied and struck again in May, 1902. Nearly all the anthracite miners in America quit work. The soft-coal miners refused to join the strike, but sent money to aid the strikers. The contest continued throughout the summer and into the fall. The price of coal more than doubled, and great harm was threatened. Public opinion again demanded that the strike be settled, but both miners and mine owners held out until President Roosevelt practically forced them to arbitrate. He appointed a number of leading men to examine the coal mines and hear the arguments of both sides. This commission made recommendations which the miners and mine owners finally accepted.

GROWTH IN THE MEANS OF EDUCATION

561. Centennials and Other Expositions. During this period inventions and discoveries were making the American people wiser. Even the unhappy disputes between labor unions and business companies were making the people think. But other influences were also aiding in making them more intelligent.

The Declaration of Independence was honored by a World's Fair at Philadelphia (1876). Here many of the leading nations of the world erected buildings to exhibit their products. More than ten million people visited the Centennial Exposition, which was open from May till November.

But the greatest lesson which America gave to other nations, and to her own people, was the World's Columbian Exposition. It was held in Chicago (1893) to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. Leading foreign nations, as well as the various states, erected buildings of their own. The grounds-now Jackson Park-were larger and more

THE MANUFACTURES BUILDING AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION

beautiful and the products richer and more numerous than those of any former World's Fair. No such collections of agricultural products, no such exhibitions of machinery, and no such displays of electricity had ever been seen before. On "Chicago Day" alone more than seven hundred thousand people visited the Fair.

In 1898 the Trans-Mississippi Exposition was opened in Omaha, to show to the world the marvelous progress of the states west of the Mississippi. The collection of products from the farms and from the mines-two departments in which this section excels the worldhas seldom been surpassed.

The Pan-American Exposition, to which all nations on the American Continent were invited, was held at Buffalo (1901). It was noted for its electrical display, and resulted in a friendlier feeling between the nations

taking part. We have already seen how, in various cities of the South, a number of expositions had been held to show the progress in that section.

562. The Rapid Growth of Schools of Higher Learning. What America had to show at her expositions would have been impossible had there not been great improvements in the means of education. These improvements not only included the growth of the public schools of the various states, but particularly the very rapid increase of schools of higher learning.

As early as 1862 Congress made large gifts of government land to encourage the study of farming and other industries. Thus aided, many

HORACE MANN

states established agricultural colleges.

Stimulated by the work of Horace Mann of Massachusetts, the states began to provide normal schools for the education of teachers. Hardly a state can now be found which does not contain more than one school for this purpose. At the same time a number of states were gradually building up universities which, in the number of their students and teachers, rivaled the older colleges and universities.

H. Bicknell of Malden, Massachusetts, from a daguerreotype in the possession of Mrs. Mann But the founding of schools of higher learning was not left to the states alone. Following the example of colonial times, the various religious denominations continued to establish colleges and universities. There are now a number of such schools in every state in the Union, and they are open to students without regard to religious views and without cost to